Class... 



COPYRIGliT DEPOSIT. 




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i 



HISTORY 

OF 

SOUTH AMERIGA 



From the First Human Existence 
To the Present Time 

& 

EMBRACING 

Accounts of the Empire of the Chinese Incas, the Japanese An- 
cient Peruvians, the African Tribes, the Malay Aborigines ; 
of the Spanish Discoveries and Conquests, and the 
Colonial Times ; of the Revolutions and Inde- 
pendence, and the Republics of the Con- 
tinent, each concluding- with a Sta- 
tistical Report and the work 
with an Appendix 



CENTRAL PUBLISHING HOUSE 
CLEVELAND, O 



- ZZ3! 

/ 



Copyrighted, 1913, 

13 Y W. F. 6R1EW EL 



MAX ■£ 1914 

©CI.A374034 



F» R E> A. O E> 



he South American continent is nearest ours; it, indeed, is a 



continuation of North America. As the people of that continent 



are Americans as well as we are, they call us American brothers. 
Thus the American brotherhood extends down to Cape Horn and it 
behooves us to acquire closer knowledge of the southern nations. 
Their past struggles and their future aspirations concern us. 

The so-called prehistoric South America with its mighty works 
and noble governments, with its epochs of prosperity and decay; the 
Spanish discoveries and conquests, marred by greed and brutality; the 
colonial times which bore the character of the middle ages; the tena- 
cious struggle for independence with its heroic deeds and continent- 
wide campaigns ; the modern republics in their endeavors, failing and 
succeeding, in their struggles with the hierarchical power and in their 
attempts to steer the ships of state into higher waters : all these fur- 
nish historical records which will interest and instruct the English 
reading public. 

The material from which to gain information upon the South 
American history is volumious. The most authentic is that which 
South American writers — each country has its own historians — have 
gathered. As the author of this work lived and labored in Chile, 
directing a school and teaching, he has access to the productions of the 
southern historians and took the material of this work mainly from 
Spanish histories of Chile, Peru, Colombia, Uruguay, and Argentina. 

He did not merely translate; he rather gathered such events as 
are essential to the history of a country and necessary for his readers 
to gain full information on a country's history, but he omitted hap- 
penings and occurrences that are of importance mainly to the people 
of the particular countries. Thus he left out records of local im- 




4 



PREFACE 



portance, undertakings and campaigns which did not result in positive 
achievements, and he relates events of practical results, occurrences of 
vital importance, facts resulting in accomplishments and advancements, 
following, nevertheless, closely the current of events. In this manner 
he is enabled to offer to the public the complete history of South 
America, comprising each country, in one volume. 

The history of South America is composed of three grand divi- 
sions; namely, Primitive South America of 3000 years, of which there 
are very complete and convincing records ; Medieval South America 
of 300 years, which includes conquests and colonies ; and Modern 
South America of 100 years, which means the breaking loose from old 
policies and regimes, the making of new states, and the development 
of the modern republics. It may be an innovation that the contents 
of each division precedes that division. 

The book moreover does not merely give past history but present 
conditions also, by concluding the history of a particular country with 
a statistical report on same. Thanks are due Hon. John Barrett, 
director general of The Pan American Union of Washington, D. C, 
who provided the author with his booklets on the South American 
republics from which he prepared the statistical reports. Thanks are 
also due Bishop Thomas B. Neeley; for from his book on South 
America valuable suggestions and informations were taken for the 
appendix which closes this work. 

May this history, then, as it deserves, find many friends and may 
it assist the government and people of the United States in fomenting 
relations of friendship and commerce with the South American na- 
tions. 

W. F. Griewe, A. M. 



i 



DIVISION I 
PRIMITIVE SOUTH AMERICA 



rimitive South America is that division of South Amer- 



ica's history which transpired before the discovery of the 
new world ; it is highly interesting and instructive. The Spanish 
discoverers found inhabitants wherever they touched the south- 
ern shores, inhabitants that belonged to different races and 
lived in various stages of development and civilization. The 
dark Caribbeans in the northern section of the continent dif- 
fered radically from the Peruvian Incas and both from Chile's 
natives. To study their customs and habits, their works and 
achievements, their religions and sayings, leads us to happy 
conclusions regarding their origin and the time of their immi- 
gration. The first race which immigrated were South Amer- 
ica's aborigines. 

In relating Primitive South America we begin with the 
race the Spaniards found in Peru, in our second period we re- 
late their predecessors, and in the third the forerunners of the 
latter, or the aborigines. The first will be the last. 




6 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION I 



Primitive South America 5 — 159 

PERIOD I. 

Empire of the Incas, 1250 to 1532 A. D 10 — 59 



PAGE. 

Founding of the Empire ... 1 1 

Manco Capac n 

Religious Statutes ..... 13 

Temple Coricancha 14 

Personnel of the cult 15 

Sun virgins 16 

Four festivals . . 17 

Civil Regulations 19 

Inca: Name and family ... 19 

Nobility 20 

Common people 20 

Communism 20 

Occupations 21 

Agriculture 22 

Trades 23 

Masonry 24 

Public life 26 

Burials 28 

Ketchua language 28 



PAGE 

29 
3° 



Instruction 

Poets 

Quibbus 

Highways 

Funning carriers 

Trade and commerce 

Wealth of Peru 

Successful government .... 

4. Laws and Courts 

Five commandments and laws 

Tribunals 39 

Penalties 39 

5. Military Dispositions 40 

Standing army 41 

Conquests humane 43 

6. Dynasty of the Incas 46 

Ten emperors: their conquests 

and governments . . . 48 — 57 

7. Origin of the Incas 57 



PERIOD II. 



Japanese Mongolian Nations and Tribes and African Tribes, 

100 to 1250 A. D 60 — 113 



PAGE 

A) The Ancient Peruvians ... 61 

Their distribution 61 

Ruins of Tiahuanaco 63 

Of the Chinchas 66 

Of Kaleb 

Andens; 250,000 miles of wa 
Ruins of Great Chimu . . . 
Pachacamac .' . 



6S 
69 
70 
72 

A family tomb 75 

80 

82 



dhavin Huantar 

Origin of the Ancient Peruvians 
B) Descendants of the Ancient Pe- 
ruvians 89 

1. The Shyri-Kingdom of Quito 89 

2. Aimares in Brazil .... 89 

3. Mandchusikuans and others 92 

Natives of Bolivia 93 

Abipones at the Parana river . 94 



PAGE 

C) The Chibchas 95 

Their country 95 

Government 96 

High priest .' . 96 

Gods and sayings 97 

Fasting and crowning 99 

El Dorado 101 

Custom of running . . . . .101 
Worship of the devil . . . .103 
Gold deposits in lakes . . . .104 
War between Bogata and Gua- 
tavita 105 

African Tribes 1 ro 

Carinas and Caribas no 

Their origin . 112 

Congo Negroes in Brazil . . .113 



8 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION I 



South America's Aborigines, 1500 



PAGE 

Three proofs for their existence . 115 

1. The Araucanians 119 

Their country 119 

Their characteristics . . . .125 

Beautiful language 128 

Religious ideas 130 

Dwellings and salutations . . 133 

Raising of children 135 

Oracles and execution . . . .137 
Public festival and gorgeous 

landscape i4 T 

Preparation for a campaign to 
Argentina 14" 



D III. 

PAGE. 

. C. to 100 A. D 114 to 160 

PAGE 

2. The Pampas Indians 148 

3. Patagonians and Firelanders . 151 

4. Origin of South America's Ab- 

origines 154 

Chronological Survey of Primitive 

South America 157 

Primitive South America substan- 
tiates Genesis 158 



ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION I 

List of Illustrations of Primitive South America. 

PAGE 

Quibbus 31 

Map of the Inca Empire 32 

Suspension bridge 34 

Fort Paramonga 40 

Ruins of a fort 42 

Pachacutec 51 

Tupac Yupankui 53 

Huayna Capac 55 

Chulpas 69 

Chimu vessels 71 

Granite cutlery 81 

Botokude 90 

Primeval Chile 120 

Araucanian at 95 and wife . 124 

Mother with baby 136 

Cacique daughters 145 

Firelanders 153 

9 



PERIOD I 

THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 
1250 to 15s 2 A. D. 



10 



1. FOUNDING OF THE EMPIRE. 



Two hundred and fifty, at the most three hundred years 
before Peru's conquest by the Spaniards in 1532, hence 
in the 13th century, there appeared a man among the Aimares, 
who became very prominent by virtue of his elevated gifts, his 
noble sentiments, and his ability in civilizing and administra- 
tive activities. This man was Manco Capac, who claimed to 
be married to his sister, called Mama Oello. The Aimares 
lived on the elevated plateau of the Andes mountains, north 
of lake Titicaca. This lake, lying on the limits between Peru 
and Bolivia and at an elevation of 13,000 feet above sea level, 
is the highest body of water of its size. It has a length of 115 
miles, a width of 30 to 60 miles, and its greatest depth is 660 
feet; it is dotted with islands. The mountain streams that 
empty into lake Titicaca constitute one of the river systems of 
Peru. 

Manco Capac and Mama Oello claimed to have come 
forth out of the lake. They also pretended to have been sent 
by the sun, which they held to be their father. As children 
of the sun they had come to the Aimares to teach them his will 
and laws, and to instruct them in arts and sciences. The 
national god of the Aimares, or rather of the Ancient 
Peruvians, was Pachacamac, whom they used to worship 
as the invisible creator of heaven and earth. Manco an- 
nounced the sun to be the visible representation of Pacha- 
camac. He and his sister-wife had received the order from 
their god to settle dqwn at that place where a golden ax 
(according to some a magic wand) which he carried with him, 
might freely sink into the soil. With this command they had 

n 



12 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



wandered from Puno on the lake in a northwesterly direction, 
till they had reached the plain of Cuzco, where they wished 
to stay, because there they had succeeded to drive their scepter 
into a hill with ease. Manco Capac announced to the inhab- 
itants of the plateau the mission for which he had come upon 
the earth. To convince them of the truth of his words, he 
and his sister-wife dedicated themselves to the welfare of the 
people, leading at the same time spotless lives. They exercised 
a remarkable unselfishness by treating the people kindly and 
by showing them how to make life comfortable. For Manco 
Capac showed the men how to till the soil and to build houses, 
while Mama Oello taught the women how to spin, to knit, and 
to sew. 

In this way they gained the confidence and affections of 
the people, who by and by were led to believe that the man. 
and woman were truly -divine. The Aimares then became 
willing to subdue themselves in all things, that they might be 
made happy, rendering them perfect obedience, and then pro- 
claimed Manco Capac lord of the land. Thereby the govern- 
ment of the Incas was established. Their territory at this be- 
ginning, was limited in the east by the river Paucartambo and 
in the west by the river Apurimac; both rivers at their con- 
flux form the Ucayali, which after a flow of 1000 miles emp- 
ties into the Amason. This territory had a length of thirty 
and a width of eighteen miles and contained over a hundred 
towns. The ruler accepted the title of Inca, which means son 
of the sun. 

The rumor of th& Inca soon spread into all directions. 
His subjects praised him^among the neighboring tribes and did 
not grow weary in speaking of his divine mission and of the 
benefits they received through him. The consequence was that 
those tribes in the course of time also became submissive to 
the Inca. The population of his domain having increased 
considerably, he founded the capital, which he called Cuzco, 
i. e. center, navel. It having become his intention to erect a 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



13 



temple to his pretended god, the sun, the rich Coricancha, i. e. 
place of gold, described on page 14, was built and became an 
ornament of his residence. 

From this simple account of the founding of the Inca em- 
pire we must conclude 1st that Peru was inhabited before this 
founding; 2nd that the ancient Peruvians of the plain of 
Cuzco, at the time of this founding, appear to have stood on a 
low plane of civilization; — in former times, as we shall find, 
they had enjoyed a higher degree of development — ; and 3rd 
that the founders of the Inca regime were superior to the 
Aimares in respect to personal qualities and practical ability, 
and that they brought a new religion. The Inti, or sun-god, 
religion was foreign to the ancient Peruvians. The names 
Inti, sun-god, and Inca, sun-son, appear to have derived from' 
the old Chinese language. For the Chinese god Shang-ti, or 
Shian-ti, was a sun-god, too, and the title of the Chinese em- 
peror Thian-tse designated him as a heaven-son. 

The statutes and regulations related on the following pag- 
es are in their essential parts attributed to the founder; they, 
nevertheless, have been enlarged and completed during the 
almost three centuries of the dynasty. 

2. RELIGIOUS STATUTES OF THE INCA EMPIRE. 

Manco Capac, the pretended sun-son, introduced the Inti- 
religion, the worship of the sun. In this endeavor he suc- 
ceeded "without serious obstacles, the sun being the source of 
the numerous benefits which man enjoys, bringing forth the 
rich harvests for men and the green pastures for the herds. 
The worship of the pure, bright, all enlivening sun, rising and 
setting daily, will have elevated the sunken minds of the An- 
cient Peruvians. This, doubtless, is a secret cause of the ex- 
traordinary success of the Incas. Special worship they also 
rendered the moon, Killa, thought to be the wife and sister of 
the sun ; Venus, thought to be her page ; and also the rain- 



14 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



bow, lightning etc., which, according to their notions, sallied 
forth from the sun-god. The stars were adored as the court- 
iers of the two principal deities. 

The Inti-religion supplanted, at least partly, the old relig- 
ion of the Ancient Peruvians, which taught to worship god 
Pachacamac and some other principal deities, as also many 
subordinate, especially domestic, gods, called Chancas. All 
these gods and deities were represented by golden, silver, 
wooden, and stone figures. In former times Pachacamac had 
been worshiped as the invisible creator of the universe and 
had not been represented in visible forms. This causes us to 
presuppose that the Ancient Peruvians formerly had the idea 
of monotheism. But at the time when the Incas immigrated, 
' those people had lost the idea of one invisible god, had brought 
Pachacamac down into the realms of visible deities, repre- 
sented him in figures, and worshiped him as an idol. In 
Ancient Peru polytheism was thoroughly incorporated. The 
Incas left the people their religion for personal and domestic 
purposes ; for all public occasions, however, the Inti-religion 
was observed. This same principle, the introduction of the 
new religion for the state, for public occasions, and the reten- 
tion of the old religion for private life, they observed, too, in 
the conquests of other tribes. Thus they exhibited high polit- 
ical wisdom and considerations. 

The oldest temple which was dedicated to the worship of 
the sun, was built on an island of lake Titicaea, out of which, 
according to tradition, the founders had come forth, wherefore 
special reverence was shown this temple. The most cel- 
ebrated and richest temple, however, was the Coricancha in 
Cuzco. Although it was only a rectangular stone structure of 
large dimensions constructed roughly and although it was only 
thatched, in the matter of gold ornaments it doubtless super- 
ceded anything that has existed since those times. The walls 
and the roof were covered with gold plates ; the cornices were 
plated with gold ; the doors, seats, and niches were golden ; 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



15 



and at the west end of the inside of the temple a gold plate 
was suspended, on which the picture of the sun was engraved. 
The temple's length extended from east to west, the main en- 
trance being at the east front. When the glorious illuminator 
of the day rose above the heights of the eastern Andes and 
sent his first pure rays over the plateau ; when the sun's rays 
entered through the eastern door into the Coricancha, falling 
on the gold plate, suspended above the altar and bearing its 
picture; .when the golden sun light was reflected from the 
gold plates and utensils in a thousandfold brilliancy and filled 
the temple ; — then the assembled people broke out in excla- 
mations over the glory of their god. But the most remark- 
able, says La Rosa Toro, was the artfully arranged garden, bor- 
dering the Coricancha, in which the shrubs, bushes, trees, and 
animals were made out of massive silver and gold ; and even 
the. tools, used to work the garden, were of gold and silver,. 
Round about the Coricancha were other temples built of sil- 
ver, one for the worship of Killa, the lunar goddess, others 
for the stars, the rainbow etc. Several buildings, pertaining 
to the temple, though separated from it, were dwellings of 
the servants. Besides the Coricancha there were other sub- 
ordinate temples in Cuzco. And each province and larger city 
possessed a sun-temple. Of these the most celebrated was 
the temple Pachacamac in the valley of Lurin, near Lima, 
which formerly had been dedicated to Pachacamac, but which 
now was used as a temple of the sun. 

The personnel of the cult consisted of men and women. 
The superior priest Huilca Uma was either a brother or an 
uncle of the ruling Inca. The other priests were selected 
from the nobility and stood in high regard. Those who were 
of the imperial family either served in the temple at Cuzco or 
went as superiors to other Inti temples of the empire. The 
priests did not constitute a privileged class, nor were they 
distinguished from other folks by an official garb. Neverthe- 
less, they had much power with the people, for these held 



16 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



them to be their mediators between themselves and their gods. 
The people entrusted the guidance of their consciences in a 
certain degree to them and consulted them often in regard to 
the future. According to the oldest historians there were 
temples with 30,000 priests. 

There were females associated with the priests in the 
services of the temples. They were chosen from the nobility 
or from the most beautiful of the people and were called sun- 
virgins. With each Inti temple throughout the land an insti- 
tution for the training of virgins was connected, which was 
in charge of an older virgin, called mamacona. An officer 
was commissioned in each province to select from the girls 
below eight years, without considering the number, such as 
had, in his judgment, good gifts and attractive appearances, 
and to place them into the institution of his province. The 
mamaconas dedicated themselves to their education. Having 
reached the age of thirteen or fourteen years, those who had 
distinguished themselves most were brought to the mother 
institution at Cuzco. The most virgins of this institution were 
princesses of imperial families. Their duties were very dif- 
ferent. Some dedicated their virginity to the service of the 
Inti-religion, others became concubines of the emperor or 
wives of high noblemen, still others were given in marriage 
to Curacas. As long as the virgins remained in the institu- 
tions, they had to attend to certain duties ; namely, to make 
very fine robes for the idols and the emperor, to kindle the 
sacred fires, to bake cakes of cornmeal, which they served 
together with chicha (cider) at the religious festivals, where 
the best of the land met. It has been intimated, that the weak- 
est virgins were sacrificed to the gods ; but this cannot be 
verified, nor is it acceptable when we consider the fact, that 
the Incas firmly prohibited the human sacrifices of the An- 
cient Peruvians and punished, with all severity, those who 
still persisted in the practice. Nor is it admissible, that the 
virgins were used for illegitimate purposes, as has been as- 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



17 



serted. This assertion we emphatically negate. Unchastity 
in the case of a virgin was punished by burying her alive, 
and the seducer was strangled. Even friends and country 
men of the guilty were often made to suffer capital punish- 
ment. 

Four main festivals were annually celebrated in the sol- 
stices and equinoxes ; one at the beginning of each season. 
The most sacred festival was Inti's birthday, called Inti Raimi, 
and was celebrated June 22nd of each year, when the days 
begin to get longer in Peru. For the celebration of this fes- 
tival the entire nobility of the empire assembled in Cuzco, the 
capital. With the dawn of the great day the ruling Inca and 
the whole imperial family took their seats on the most prom- 
inent public place in the city. The noblemen and their famil- 
ies also assembled there, while the common people filled the 
streets. Scarcely had the first solar rays illumined the peaks 
of the Andes, when the assembled people raised an immense 
cry to greet their god. The body of the sun becoming visible, 
all sat down upon the earth to worship. Prayers having been 
said, the Inca rose, holding in each hand a golden cup filled 
with chicha. The cup in the right hand he emptied into a 
receptacle also of gold, through which the liquid flowed in 
subterranean channels into the Coricancha. Then he drank 
a little from the cup of the left hand and gave the members 
of his family also to drink. The nobility and people followed 
the example. The libation having ended, a solemn proces- 
sion was begun, which terminated by entering the Coricancha. 
The people took the covering from their feet two hundred 
steps before the entrance, while the imperial family did so in 
the temple. There short prayers were said before the golden 
picture of the god and a few offerings were brought, where- 
upon the whole assembly returned in solemn procession to the 
plazas to bring more offerings — animals, seeds, incense, and 
jewels. The Calpurical observed the intestines and lungs of 
the sacrificed animals to predict coming events, while the 

2 



18 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



virapircos observed the sacrificial smoke for the same pur- 
pose. After the sacrifice the feast began. The llama is a 
very useful domestic animal in Peru's mountainous country 
and was not killed in common life to supply the family with 
meat. However, at the public festival llamas were killed and 
their meat consumed. At the annual festival in question large 
quantities of llama meat, chicha, and zancu, cakes baked from 
cornmeal, were distributed among the people. Merry dances 
brought the festival of Inti's birth to a close. 

The second sun- festival, Citua Raimi, was celebrated in 
September, at the beginning of Peru's spring. This was a 
festival of purification, initiated by fasting and a bath in the 
night preceding the festive day. Balls made of sacred bread 
and moistened or mixed with sacrificial blood, were cooked in 
kettles and sent to all the temples and to the Curacas. A 
Curaca was a native official who ruled over 10,000 inhabitants. 
The people rubbed themselves with sacrificial blood. A sun- 
messenger armed with weapons sallied forth from the Inca 
palace and commanded four other messengers to chase all 
evils away. The latter, thereupon, ran through the streets, 
making a great noise. A torch parade in the evening con- 
cluded the second annual festival. 

The third festival, Capac Raimi, occurred in December, 
on the third day of the Peruvian summer, and the fourth, 
called Paucar Huaray, was observed in March, on the first 
day of autumn. Besides this festive cycle monthly celebra- 
tions were held. In July large quantities of chicha were 
poured, with religious significance, into irrigation channels 
and rivulets to the end that plenteous water might flow for 
the irrigation of the fields. In August the endeavor was 
made to avert diseases during the ensuing year, by observing 
certain ceremonies. And they celebrated important occasions ; 
e. g. the birth of a prince, the examination and arming of 
the young Incas, a great victory, etc. New born children re- 
ceived a special bath, conjuring words were pronounced over 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



19 



the dying. Whenever the name scipas (devil) was uttered, 
they spit on the ground, to despise the evil one. To hinder the 
rainbow from entering their bodies they closed the nostrils 
with clay. 

3. CIVIL REGULATIONS OF THE INCA EMPIRE. 

The founder accepted the theories, that the monarchy be 
hereditary, that the oldest son of the ruling Inca be heir to 
the throne, and that he take one of his sisters for his legitimate 
wife.. As empress she was called coya. The emperor with 
his coya, with the mother queen, his concubines, all his chil- 
dren, and the families of deceased Incas constituted the im- 
perial family. The emperor was the patriarchal head of this 
extended family circle, actually consisting of a number of 
families. Besides the imperial family there were among the 
nobility other Incas and their families, who together with the 
first named constituted the generation of Incas. These counted 
6000 to 7000 persons and had the controlling power. Hence 
the name "Inca" is first the title, not the proper name, of the 
ruler; secondly it is the name of the entire house or genera- 
tion of Incas, in so far as they distinguished 'themselves from 
the Ancient Peruvians. However, among the latter there 
were also men of official standing, called Curacas. All the 
Incas lived in the greatest abundance and splendor. For the 
products of a part of the lands which the people cultivated were 
for their use, although the so cultivated land was not their 
property. It was, namely, a characteristic of this dynasty that 
the new emperor came to the enjoyment of the income of his 
predecessor, but not to the possession of properties ; for no- 
body owned real estate, even not the emperor, though all the 
Incas enjoyed th,e products of the lands, designated and re- 
served for them. When an Inca took up the reins of gov- 
ernment, he ordered the erection of a palace for himself and 
immediate family and had it adorned and decorated in har- 
mony with his dignity. The palace was for his use only, and 



20 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



not his property. From the Inca generation proceeded the 
most prominent religious, political, and military leaders. They 
spoke a language which the other noblemen and the people 
did not understand. 

The nobility was composed of two classes ; to wit, the first 
class consisted of the Incas, who had founded and extended 
the empire, were influential and stood in high esteem ; the sec- 
ond class of noblemen was composed of such Ancient Peru- 
vians as had distinguished themselves through personal merit 
and of such curacas (chiefs) of subdued nations and tribes 
as were of good report among their own people. Though the 
Incas permitted the curacas to retain the positions they had 
held before the conquest, yet they placed them under the vig- 
ilance of the imperial supervisors of the respective province. 
They were carefully watched, because some had revolted 
against the mild Inca government and had provoked bloody 
revolutions. 

The common people consisted of all those folks that did 
not belong to either of the two classes of nobility or to the 
priesthood. They were agriculturists, artisans, and servants. 
Bondsmen, serfs, or slaves apparently were not known in the 
empire of the Incas. Conquered tribes were not subjugated ; 
they were rather quickly incorporated in the empire and treated 
as citizens with equal rights. Instead of pressing the con- 
quered into bondage, their lot was usually greatly improved ; 
for they passed, in the course of time, from a barbarous to a 
semi-civilized state of existence. 

The division of cultivated lands was the basis of the com- 
munism, which had been initiated at the beginning of the Inca 
history and which, doubtless, is the best realization of socialis- 
tic thought, which history can record. Nobody was owner 
of real estate, neither members of the imperial family, nor 
noblemen, nor any of the common people. No one could buy 
land or acquire it in any other way. In harmony with this 
principle the cultivated lands were divided into four divisions. 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



21 



The products and harvests gathered from the first division 
were for the priests and the sun-virgins ; those of the second 
division were for the widows, the orphans, and the helpless ; 
those of the third division were for the people themselves. 
Each man worked the land assigned to him, but with the com- 
mon obligation of assisting the neighbor when circumstances 
might demand it. Lastly they cultivated the lands of the Inca. 
This was done with great ceremony by the whole population 
and in a body. At break of day they were summoned by a 
proclamation from some neighboring tower or eminence, and 
all the inhabitants of the district, men, women, and children, 
appeared dressed in their gayest apparel, bedecked with their 
little stores of finery and ornaments, as if for some great jubi- 
lee. They went through the labors of the day in a happy 
mood of mind, chanting their popular songs which commem- 
orated the heroic deeds of the Incas. They regulated the 
movements of the labor by the singing of which the word hailli 
— victory — was usually the most important. So the day glided 
peacefully away under the direction of an Inca. The emperor 
used his income but partly to meet his own expenses which 
were numerous, the other parts went to the general needs of 
the empire and to cases of public misfortune. As the people 
were not owners of lands, so no one owned the dwelling in 
which he lived, or the herds, or, as it seems, even the furni- 
ture and tools. The herds of llamas and alpacas were the 
country folk allowed for use only; the animals belonged to 
the priests and the emperor. Under no pretext was a citizen 
permitted to dispose of animals. Everything was property of 
the state, the people were his obedient members. 

The occupation of the people was in every particular 
planned and prescribed by officials. Idleness, the present 
characteristic of the Peruvians and of many other South 
Americans, w T as completely banished from the empire of the 
Incas. Everybody worked ; even the children and old people, 
the lame, blind, and cripple labored according to their ability. 



22 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The women were at times exempt from outside labors. The 
toil in the fields ; the public labors, such as on roads, at bridg- 
es, and forts ; the occupation of miners, of herdsmen, weav- 
ers, potters, mail-carriers, workers in metals, — in fact every 
action proceeded according to the regulations of higher au- 
thorities. Even the occupations were chosen for certain per- 
sons, whereby, however, regard was had for individual incli- 
nations. Still more, the time of work, the manner of dressing, 
and the meals were officially regulated. Was not the super- 
vision of the state carried too far and did it not hinder the 
individual action and the liberty of the people? But did not 
the communistic life necessitate such a tutorship? Hence, if 
we want communism we must accept supervision and regu- 
lation. 

Agriculture was the chief occupation in the empire of the 
Incas. Sr. La Rosa Toro, the present day historian of Peru, 
from whom we gain much of our information on that coun- 
try, writes : "The land was then more generally cultivated than 
in our times. All the valleys of the coast which lie dry in our 
days were traversed by canals and ditches which conducted the 
water for irrigating the rainless regions often more than twen- 
ty miles. In the sandy coastlands to which no water could be 
conducted, cisterns of various depths were dug that water 
might accumulate and be used for irrigating the arid lands, as 
may be seen, on the plains of Pisco still today. The irrigation 
canals, of which many remnants are still existing, were grand. 
The most celebrated are those of Nasca which are in use to- 
day and on which the fruitfulness of the Nasca valley depends. 
If all open or subterranean canals, dating from the times of 
the Incas, were at present in use, Peru's agriculture would 
necessarily flourish." 

All the valleys and ravines of the Andes were under cul- 
tivation ; mountain sides and slopes were leveled in terrace- 
like form and then cultivated. Agriculture was esteemed of 
such importance that no village was allowed to be established, 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



23 



or even a house to be built, where land could be cultivated. 
The fields were manured with guano, i. e. excrement of sea- 
birds, which they found on the coast and on neighboring 
islands. The principal products of the Inca times were corn, 
potatoes, bananas, the freely used red pepper, cotton, Adam's 
apples, coca, agaves, ananas. The modern plow was not 
known. To work the ground they used a long pole, to which 
cross-beams were fastened ; they worked this apparatus with 
both hands and feet. The emperor himself cultivated a piece 
of land at Cuzco with a golden plow-share, likely for the pur- 
pose of setting a good example to his country men, but also 
to continue an old custom of his people. It is related by good 
authority that the custom existed in China 600 years before 
Christ. The Chinese emperor then was believed to be the 
son of Thian, i. e. of the sun-god and once a year would plow 
the ground before the assembled people. As the Inca-emper- 
or did likewise, we have also in this rare usage an indication 
which points to the relation of the Incas to the Chinese. 

The Peruvian people carried on many trades. They gained 
precious metals in surprising quantities and displayed a never 
heard-of splendor of gold. Besides gold, silver, and copper, 
the mines furnished iron, tin, quicksilver, etc. They, how- 
ever, understood to work the three precious metals only. The 
smelting of silver metals was performed by means of large 
portable ovens, called huayras, having many holes on the sides 
through which the air rushed with such force as though it were 
forced in by bellows. Iron, the most useful metal of the pres- 
ent age, was not unknown to the Peruvians ; they, however, 
did not understand how to treat it. Their tools, axes, chisels, 
tongs, etc., they manufactured from quartz, copper, and a kind 
of bronze, prepared by themselves. The saw and plane were 
not known to them. — The art of building was still in its in- 
fancy ; it did not yet furnish any pillars, columns, railings, 
arches. Lately, however, fragments of relief-work with fig- 
ures have been recovered. The dwellings in the mountainous 



24 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



regions were principally built of stone, those in other regions 
of adobes and reeds ; and they were covered with rushes and 
straw and in rainless regions with clay. Instead of nailing the 
timbers, they tied them together with ropes. The entrances 
to the dwellings were low, the doors being made of skins, 
cloth, or reeds. Windows were rare. However, the palaces, 
temples, and the houses of the sun-virgins required more art 
and had windows. The Inca palace at Cajamarca contained 
an apartment which had four vaults and the residence of an 
Inca in Quito was cylindrical. Some palaces and forts had 
staircases. The structures throughout the empire were plain, 
firm, and symmetrical. The stone cutters and polishers fur- 
nished rectangular and polygonal stones for buildings. They 
fitted without mortar so closely and exactly one to the other 
that the joinings could scarcely be noticed. 

THE MASONRY OF THE INCAS. 

Mr. Squier, who made detailed investigations in Peru, 
describes it as follows: 

"Many walls are massive and imposing and are construct- 
ed from hard and heavy stones. The walls of the front build- 
ing of Inca Roka's palace, which fronts the triumphal street of 
Cuzco, are of solid, fine syenite stones. Some of them weigh 
various tons and are joined together with remarkable exact- 
ness. As a rule the palaces and temples were built around an 
inner court. Since they had only one entrance and, with few 
exceptions, no windows in the outside walls, their exterior had 
the appearance of an uninterrupted mason- work. The en- 
trance was in all cases wide and high, so that a rider could enter 
without difficulty. The lintel was regularly a heavy slab in 
which, as also in the posts, figures were engraved, among which 
serpents were the most usual. 

"The walls of these structures incline a little inward and 
some grow narrower towards the top. Those in Cuzco are 
hewn out of brown, roughly grained trachyte, which allows a 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



25 



closer joining of stone than any other kind. The stones in 
the structures vary in length from one foot to eight feet and in 
thickness from six inches to two feet. Being placed in regular 
layers, the larger stones generally forming the lower layers 
and the walls getting thinner as they rise, they make a very 
pleasing appearance of gradation. The grooves are all hardly 
noticeable. They are of an exactness unknown in our architec- 
ture ; the remains of antique structural art, which I saw in 
Europe, do not approach them. The reports of old writers, 
that the stones of many buildings were joined together with 
such precision that impossibly the thinest knife-blade or the 
finest needle could be inserted, may be considered as very cor- 
rect. The world has nothing to show up in the line of stone 
cutting which surpasses the exactness and ability with which 
the Inca structures at Cuzco were erected. In the buildings, 
I describe, there is no cement, or mortar of any kind, or the 
slightest evidence that any had been applied. The architects 
of the Inca times depended on the precise fitting of the stones, 
not on mortar, to obtain durability of the buildings. These 
buildings, unless unusual forces will destroy them, will still 
stand when the capitol at Washington, D. C. will have sunken 
into dustN&md when Macauly's New Zealander will, from the 
crumbled arches of London's bridge, look down upon the 
ruins of St. Paul's cathedral. 

"Almost all the rooms of an Inca house had the entrance 
from the inner court. As a rule there were no doors between 
the rooms and each room seems to have served a special pur- 
pose. But there w T ere also rooms which could only be reached 
by going through a number of other apartments. These hid- 
den rooms were probably dedicated to religious exercises or 
they were secret hiding quarters for the timid and the weak. 
Many rooms were large. Gareilaso, the Inca descendant who 
wrote the history of his own people, describes rooms of such 
enormous dimensions, that each could hold sixty riders and 
afford them sufficient space to exercise with lances. Three 



26 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



sides of the large central plaza were occupied by as many enor- 
mous buildings, in which religious and other ceremonies were 
performed. Each of them was spacious enough to hold a 
thousand persons. A few of them were actually two hundred 
steps long and fifty to sixty steps wide and could hold three 
thousand persons. Prescott and others have described all 
Inca buildings as of one story, low, and without windows ; but 
there were houses in Cuzco that were thirty-five to forty feet 
high, up to the purlin. And we know there were residences 
and temples two and three stories high, also that they had win- 
dows, suitable to lighten up the interior." 

Fine arts remained undeveloped. The statues were gro- 
tesque figures, whose legs and arms were glued on. The ar- 
tists dedicated themselves mostly to the production of golden, 
silver, wooden, and stony idols and to the formation of earthen 
or clay vessels, .to whom they gave the form of men, animals, 
and fruits. — The weavers manufactured excellent dress goods 
from wool, cotton, and a kind of straw. The softness of the 
fine stuffs which the Spanish conquerors brought to Europe, 
drew the attention of the Europeans upon these manufactures. 
Even the king of Spain did not disdain to wear goods which 
the Inca princesses had woven. In the year 1891 a number 
of skeletons were recovered which had been wrapped in such 
fine stuffs of the times of the Incas, that the discoverers mar- 
velled at their excellency. And finally, those people were 
skilled in dyeing. They dyed the woven stuffs red, green, yel- 
low, blue, and black; still now these colors may be found in 
the burial places of this people. The red color they gained 
from a small snail and from the cochineal. 

Domestic as well as public life in the empire was spent 
amidst manifold changes and diversions. The Peruvian was 
melancholy and respectful, mild and humble, obedient and re- 
served, and also hospitable. All marriages in the Inca empire 
were celebrated on one and the same day of the year, the 
national wedding day and a genuine holiday of the people. 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



27 



The matches had to be made according to directions within 
the extended family, i. e. within the friendship circle, and us- 
ually, in some sections always, in accord with the taste of the 
superiors. No young man was allowed to marry before his 
twenty-fifth year and no young woman before her eighteenth. 
The very simple wedding ceremony was performed in the im- 
perial family by the emperor himself, by taking the couple by 
the hands and declaring them husband and wife. The same 
ceremony was observed on the public plazas of the cities and 
villages throughout the land, where the officials joined the 
bridal pairs in holy wedlock, all on the same day. Thereupon 
the people indulged in festivities and jolifications for several 
days. While the common man had one wife only, the noble- 
men lived in polygamy. 

For every young couple a house was built at the expense 
of the government and to them a piece of land was assigned 
for cultivation as the law prescribed. This piece was less 
than an acre for one man. The houses in which the common 
people lived had one or two rooms. The furniture and uten- 
sils naturally were plain ; they were beds of skins, large earth- 
en pots and jugs, jars of different sizes and shapes, dishes, 
plates, and bottles, looking glasses and combs, spinning appa- 
ratus and looms. — Only two regular meals were customary 
during the day. Rev. Cappa writes on this point : ''The Peru- 
vians were prohibited to prepare extraordinary meals; but 
they were invited two or three times a month to dine with the 
provincial superiors at public tables, where selected food was 
served." 

Among the popular diversions dance and the intemperate 
use of chicha — cider — were pre-eminent. They danced and 
drank at all domestic occasions and public events ; to wit, at 
the birth of a child or the death of a friend, at the departure 
or return of a relative, at the time when the hair of the one 
year old boy was cut for the first time and when he became of 
age, for the sake of peace and of war. Besides dancing the 



28 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Peruvians enjoyed themselves at solving of riddles, at playing 
of ball and at dice, at running races and at fighting. The last 
two diversions were arranged in the month of January. In 
December military sham battles were fought in the presence 
of the emperor, who rewarded with prizes those who distin- 
guished themselves most through bravery and gallantry. 

They buried their dead on natural or artificially erected 
hills, called huacas. In these hills they made excavations 
which they lined with poles and reels and in which they en- 
tombed the remains together with clothes, food, jewels, and 
domestic utensils. They did not lay the corpse in a coffin and 
bury it, but placed it in a truncated cone in a sitting position. 
Innumerable skeletons sit in those subterranean vaults, the 
arms crossed over the breasts, faces and feet penetrating the 
cones. The deceased Incas were embalmed and entombed in 
the Coricancha of the capital. After the lapse of many years 
these mummies had still retained a soft skin. The corpse of 
Inca Huayna Capac was transported from Quito, where he 
died, to Cuzco for the purpose of entombment. While friends 
and relatives carried their dead to the huaca, they sang songs 
relating to their deeds and virtues. They believed that the 
souls of the Incas went to an upper world, while those of the 
others went to a lower world. They believed in a future life, 
in the recompense of the good and the punishment of the 
wicked, and in the end of the world. 

The popular language of the Inca empire was the Kechua. 
This was not the language which the Incas had brought into 
Peru and which they spoke; they did not introduce a new 
language, though they had introduced the Inti-religion. We 
may record what Sr. La Rosa Toro, the contemporaneous his- 
torian of Peru, reports on this point. He writes : "The Incas 
and their families — the Inca generation — spoke a dialect 
which the rest of the nobility and the people did not use. 
Therefore this language lost itself, as soon as the close rela- 
tives of the Incas had disappeared, namely after the first or 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



29 



second generation after the Spanish conquest." The Kechua 
must have been the language of the Aimares, among whom 
the Incas settled. From the plain of Cuzco they spread this 
language, with the extension of their territory, over all Peru 
and to the bordering countries beyond. Before the Incas had 
come the various peoples of the Ancient Peruvians spoke 
diverse dialects, with which the Kechua mixed as it spread. 
Thus a number of dialects of the Kechua were developed ; the 
one spoken in Cuzco and vicinity must have been the purest. 
The Kechua language is soft and very sentimental in expres- 
sion and rich in inflections. Its declinations and conjugations 
are similar to the Latin. An unwritten grammar existed which 
was taught verbally. Instruction in the language was actually 
given, although they had neither a written nor a printed lan- 
guage. The Kechua is still generally spoken by the natives 
of the extended tablelands of Bolivia, where they constitute 
the main portion of the population, and by the natives of Peru. 

A systematic instruction existed only for the princes and 
the sons of the nobility; the boys of the common people had 
no access thereto; for the girls there were no schools. Var- 
ious emperors took an interest in the instruction of the boys. 
It is said of emperor Pachacutec that he had his palace erected 
near a schoolhouse and did not think it below his dignity to 
give instruction. The schools were conducted by wise men, 
called Amautas, who instructed orally, not having books. The 
amautas instructed their Inca and noble pupils in good behav- 
ior, that they might acquire pleasing manners ; in virtue, that 
they might live respectfully and honorably and know later in 
life how to manage their families and to raise their children ; 
in religion, that they might become acquainted with its teach- 
ings and usages ; in music and poetry, that their hearts might 
be trained and they might act properly in society ; in the laws 
of the land, that they might understand the precepts they 
would have to follow and the privileges they should enjoy; in 
politics, that they might be able to manage the affairs of the 



30 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



empire and the provinces ; in military tactics, that they might 
be able to train and control the army; in history, that they 
might appreciate the deeds of their forefathers, stimulate their 
ambition, and gain the favor of the people for themselves ; and 
finally in astrology, that they might learn to understand the 
calendar and the seasons and, observing the stars, they might 
acquire some knowledge of medicine. 

The poets composed songs on the heroic deeds of the In- 
cas and gave expression to the emotions of the heart. The 
national songs, called Yavaries, were sung by the Peruvians 
with sweet melancholy tunes. These tunes were better adapt- 
ed to their exceedingly fine sensibility than the lively comical 
music. The players accompanied the yavaries with a kind of 
flute, called quena, having six openings. On this instrument 
they produced painful lamentations. The Spaniards found so 
much pleasure in the contents and melodies of these Peruvian 
national songs, that they introduced many of them, in slightly 
changed forms, into their popular music. They also accepted 
some Peruvian poems. Besides the yavaries there were other 
songs, and besides the quena they had the fife of god Pan and 
the horn. — Thus we see that, poetry was known in the Inca 
times. Many devoted their time to theatrical representations. 
They played dramatic, tragical, and mimical pieces, presenting 
the lives of herdsmen, of fishers, of country folk, and of 
heroes. As an example of tragedies the play: "Ollanta," is 
mentioned in which the cruelty of a father and the magna- 
nimity of a king figured. Also the play : "The love of a flow- 
er," indicates the popular taste. 

Although the Incas did not know the art of writing they, 
nevertheless, had an interesting method of communication. 
For the purpose of calculating and of preserving historical 
data they made use of braided strings of various thicknesses 
and colors in which they tied knots. This devise they called 
quibbus. It is not known what meaning they gave to the various 
thicknesses of the strings ; but the red color indicated war ; the 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



31 



white, peace ; the yellow, silver ; the green, grain. The knots 
indicated numbers ; e. g. a single knot indicated 10 ; two sin- 
gle knots, closely tied together, 20; a double knot, 100; a 
threefold tied knot, 1000. The number 2130 they would have 
expressed by two threefold, one double, and three single knots. 
Threads hanging down from the strings indicated subordinate 
occurrences. By means of these strings and knots provincial 




QUIBBUS 



officers were able to report to the capital the number of inhab- 
itants and of heads of cattle of a province, the sums of taxes, 
and the quantities of harvested grains. In the quibbus which 
the judges sent to the government various colors indicated 
different crimes ; the kind of knots, different punishments. 
Annually the census of the people was taken and reported to 
Cuzco with an exactness which, according to Rev. Cappa, the 
most of the farthest advanced nations have not yet reached. 
However, to carry history to coming generations tradition had 
to come to the aid of the quibbus. Let us here also mention 
the commission of men residing in the capital who, having 
received exact reports from the provincial officers on the re- 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




MAP OF THE INCA EMPIRE 

.... indicate limits. 
indicate highways. 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



33 



sources and needs of the various provinces and also on the 
number of inhabitants, arranged exact statistics. It was also 
the duty of this commission to fix with all possible precision 
the kind and number of services, for which payments had to be 
drawn from the public treasury. The distribution of salaries 
was the duty of zealous officers, who filled positions through- 
out the empire. 

Truly grand were the highways which the Incas built, 
extending them from time to time, until they traversed about 
the entire length of the immense tablelands of the Andes. The 
main thoroughfare led from Cuzco northward over the Cor- 
dilleras and extended beyond Quito; and from Cuzco south- 
ward to Tucuman, whence, crossing the Andes, it continued 
along the Pacific coast through northern Chile. It extended 
in Chile to the river Maule which divides that country in a 
northern and southern half and which formed the southern 
limit of the Inca empire. This main highway had a length of 
3000 miles and a width of 18 to 20 feet. To build it on the 
frightfully rugged plateaus of the majestic Andes, evidently 
innumerable obstacles had to be overcome. For here eleva- 
tions had to be lowered and tunnels dug, there mountain 
streams, flowing in deeply cut beds and ravines, had to be 
bridged over, and again dams had to be laid through swamps. 
The report goes, that a tunnel was cut and hewn through a 
granite mountain sixty miles long through which the highway 
passed. And those people had neither iron tools, nor augers, 
nor dynamite. The bridges were neither of stones nor of 
timber, but of cables made of tough reed-like willows, of 
which they made suspension bridges. To build such a bridge 
three to six cables were parallely suspended across a ravine 
and fastened to trees or rocks. Across the cables poles were 
fastened and these were covered with branches, gravel, and 
sand. All this may still be seen at the bridge spanning the 
river Apurimac. There was one bridge which was suspended 
by only one cable. The swimming bridges consisted of many 

3 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



35 



rafts, one fastened to another and the whole to the river banks. 
— Parallel with this thoroughfare and about 100 miles apart 
from it, another road ran alongside the seashore, which might 
have had a length of 1200 miles. Both thoroughfares were 
connected by numerous cross roads. Alongside the main thor- 
oughfares lodging places were erected which offered travelers 
all conveniences without charge ; for in those times the Peru- 
vians distinguished themselves through hospitality. When 
the emperors, being carried on sedan chairs, traveled over these 
roads, servants, going ahead, removed all obstacles, even peb- 
bles. The roads also served military purposes. 

The running carriers performed their duties on these pub- 
lic thoroughfares. Throughout the empire men, called chas- 
kis, were placed at definite stations for the purpose of serving 
as carriers. These ran over distances assigned to them with 
surprising speed and delivered orders and packages with great 
precision. The mail service was performed in this manner, 
and the Incas could obtain what they needed from a far dis- 
tance. Thus, for instance, was it possible that the people in 
Cuzco, 250 miles away from the ocean, could daily eat fresh 
fish which had been caught on the coast of the Pacific. 

Trade and commerce, it seems, remained quite undevel- 
oped. Every neighborhood of tropical Peru, immeasurably 
rich in resources, will have plenteously supplied the domestic 
needs of the people, which, indeed, were simple and plain. All 
intercourse on the few navigable rivers, on the lakes, and the 
ocean was carried on in canoes and on rafts. But with these 
the Peruvians made long journeys along the Pacific coast, trav- 
eling as far as the coasts of Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama, 
and even to the coasts of Central America, carrying on an ex- 
change trade. Thus it becomes explicable why the inhabitants 
of Panama were able to tell the gold seeking Spaniards of the 
mighty state in the south that was rich in gold. When these, 
as may be known, quarreled on the Atlantic coast of the isth- 
mus about , a piece of gold, an Indian, pointing towards the 



36 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



south, said: "Do you see yonder mountains? Beyond them 
is living a mighty and rich people that dresses in fine clothes 
and is navigating a large sea. Why do you quarrel about that 
bagatelle?" In consequence of this indication the Spaniards 
resolved later to search for the great sea and the rich people 
of the south. We mention this incident here to establish the 
fact, that the Peruvians were known as traders on the isthmus 
of Panama before Columbus discovered America. If in this 
connection we also consider the circumstance, that Columbus 
himself was shown by the natives of the West Indian islands 
towards the south, where he would be able to find much gold ; 
we may draw the more comprehensive conclusion, that the na- 
tives of different parts of South America navigated the coasts 
of the continent in their light craft and knew of one another 
at a time when Europe had as yet no knowledge of their exist- 
ence. — Let us here ask a few questions. Did the Peruvians 
not navigate the southern coast of the continent? No report 
to that effect can be found. Why did they pursue a northern 
course? Was the northern sea route known to them from 
olden times? Did former acquaintances originally draw them 
northward? Had it become their custom to travel that way? 
Had their forefathers not come from the north? These ques- 
tions may assist us in making inquiries about the origin of the 
Incas and of the Ancient Peruvians, and may gain more inter- 
est later. 

Let the zvealth of Peru occupy our attention a moment 
longer. The kind reader will remember what was said on 
page 14 about the immensity of gold of the Coricancha and its 
surroundings. Besides the temples of the sun-god, for whose 
worship gold-splendor rendered the best service, the palaces 
of the Incas reflected the brilliancy of gold, silver, and precious 
stones. In those residences were vessels of solid gold, weigh- 
ing two to three hundred pounds each. During the govern- 
ment of emperor Huayna Capac unknown magnificence of 
gold was displayed. For the festivities that were arranged 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



37 



at the time his oldest son was one year old, a chain of solid 
gold was manufactured, which had a length of 700 feet and 
the thickness of a fist. For the remembrance of that enor- 
mously valuable gold chain the boy prince from that day on 
received the surname Huascar, which signifies cable or chain. 
By this name he is known in history ; his other name is difficult 
to pronounce. The gold transported from Peru to Spain gave 
the latter country the supremacy in Europe in the 16th cen- 
tury. Tehuantisuyu — Peru — was the world's richest country 
at that time. 

After the immensity of the Inca empire's precious metals 
we mention its overabundance of tropical vegetation, the fer- 
tility of its soil, the diligence of its inhabitants, and its excel- 
lent climate, as proofs of its wealth. Since no want came into 
the country, the Peruvians were not dependent upon other 
countries for their subsistence. Therefore trade and com- 
merce were not well developed. 

The density of a country's population, too, is a sign of its 
prosperity and wealth. The population of the empire of the 
Incas at the time of its greatest extension and most advanced 
development, i. e. during the reign of emperor Huayna Capac, 
is estimated at 10 to 11 millions. There were 700,000 persons 
living in the Santa valley, and 600,000 in the Nicari valley. 
The empire held within its borders innumerable villages and 
100 to 200 large cities. Cuzco, the capital, had 30,000 inhab- 
itants in the inner city and 200,000 in the outer city, in which 
people from the provinces lived. Other cities of prominence 
were Cajamarca, Quito, Chimu, Huanaco, Chincha, Arekipa, 
Vilkas, and others. 

History furnishes the proof that the government of the 
Incas was successful. The Peru of our times is in various re- 
spects decidedly behind the Peru of the Incas. History makes 
it evident that the Incas were better able to manage the coun- 
try and the people than the Spaniards. The Incas came to 
Peru, sought the welfare of the people, and succeeded ; the 



38 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Spaniards came impelled by the greed of gold, robbed the 
country of its wealth, and subdued the inhabitants. The Incas 
were kind, just, and humane towards their predecessors ; the 
Spaniards were greedy, treacherous, and cruel. At the time 
of the Incas the Peruvians were diligent, the present Peruvians 
are lazy, shying work. Then the soil was tilled carefully and 
agriculture flourished, sustaining a numerous people ; now the 
land is esteemed of little value. Then irrigation was carried 
on wherever possible and the coastlands that have no rain were 
made productive ; now those regions lie waste and men look 
with surprise at the works of by-gone ages. Then the area of 
present Peru had a population of 7 to 8 millions — the entire 
empire of the Incas comprised 10 to 11 millions, as we already 
stated — while the Peru of our times is inhabited by but a few 
more than half its former number. An impartial observer is 
compelled to say: "Heaven blessed the wise endeavors of the 
heathen Incas, while the Spaniards with their principles and 
greed brought a curse over that country." The Incas were 
superior in national activities, in agricultural pursuits, in pop- 
ulation, and seemingly even in public morals and good virtues. 

4. LAWS AXD COURTS OF THE INCA EMPIRE. 

There were wise regulations which were based on the five 
commandments : Thou shalt not steal, thou shalt not lie, thou 
shalt not be lazy, thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not commit 
adultery. The code of laws comprised agrarian lazes, accord- 
ing to which the land had to be divided impartially and ac- 
cording to the number of families; sumptuary laws, which 
prohibited excessive luxury and regulated the expenses of the 
nobility as well as those of the common people; regulations 
of brotherhood, which should have the effect that the inhabi- 
tants mutually assisted and supported one another in the emer- 
gencies of everv day's life ; of benevolence, which bade to 
come to the assistance of the sick, the old folk, and the cripple ; 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



39 



of hospitality, which prescribed the manner in which the needs 
of the travelers were to be supplied at the expense of the gov- 
ernment; regulations for the superiors in regard to the in- 
struction which they should give to the families relative to 
their domestic duties, encouraging them to be clean, to keep 
their clothing and tools in good repair, and in respect to the 
training of the children so as to respect, to obey, and to assist 
their parents ; tax regulations, which prescribed that the peo- 
ple between the years of 18 and 50 were held responsible to 
work the lands of the sun and of the crown, and to make arms 
and clothing for the army. 

Every town and district had its judicial tribunal for minor 
offenses. Crimes had to be sentenced by judges of higher 
standing, who commonly were the superiors of departments, 
or by judges of imperial blood. In case of unusual difficulty 
the latter went to the place where the case was tried. Every 
lawsuit had to be brought to conclusion in the course of five 
days. Appeal to a higher court was not known ; lawsuit ex- 
penses there were none. The lower courts gave monthly ac- 
counts of their proceedings to the higher courts and these 
again to the provincial officers. Now and then visiting com- 
mittees were appointed which, traveling through the prov- 
inces, inspected the court-proceedings and insisted upon exact- 
ness. Among a people carrying on little trade and not enjoy- 
ing the possession of personal property there will not have 
been frequent occasions for lawsuits. Lawyers could not 
have succeeded there, since no person of the court received a 
pay. 

The penalties imposed were severe. Capital punishment 
suffered he who cursed the sun-god or the Inca emperor, who 
revolted against the latter, who laid fire to bridges, and also 
the murderer, the thief, and the adulterer. The sentences 
were executed by burying the condemned alive, by casting them 
before ferocious animals or by stoning them ; more seldom by 
decapitating or hanging the criminals or by precipitating them 



40 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



from high rocky cliffs. Those who changed the course of the 
waters of the irrigation canals or who altered the limits between 
parcels of land or who set houses on fire were whipped on 
legs and arms or were imprisoned. Emperor Tupac Yupanki 
introduced three classes of imprisonment; to wit, a painful 
one, one for life, and one of temporary confinement. Inhab- 
itants who revolted against the government were exterminated 
and their cities and villages were leveled. Political criminals 
were also banished to Acari. Finally they tried to put male- 
factors, having been convicted, to shame by forcing them to 
carry stones on their backs. 




FORT PARAMONGA 



5. MILITARY DISPOSITIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 

The Incas employed extensive means for the security and 
the extension of their country. The art to build forts was far 
advanced. Many forts had bulwarks, trenches, and walls with 
breastworks. Forts and castles existed in large numbers 
throughout the land. The capital which could easily be at- 
tacked on its north side, was there protected by a fort built on 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



41 



a hill which stood in connection with the imperial palace by 
means of subterranean passages. In regard to the solidity of 
the walls of these forts Mr. Squier writes that they contained 
polished porphyry blocks, which measured 18 feet in length, 
15 feet in width, and 4 feet in thickness and that others were 
21 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 5 feet thick. They were fitted 
so perfectly that he scarcely could find the joints. 

The Incas maintained a standing army which they sup- 
ported, clothed, and armed at their own expense. In its or- 
ganization as in that of the division of the people they fol- 
lowed the decimal system. The army, hence, was composed 
of bodies of ten, hundred, -and thousand men. In the latter 
period of the empire the Incas are said to have had a standing 
army of 200,000 men. Each larger body of troops had its 
own banner ; that of the Inca being the rainbow. The troops 
wore the same clothing which was customary in the province 
from which they came and decorated themselves with a kind 
of turban. The commanders wore helmets, made from var- 
ious metals ; many wore such as were made of gold and sil- 
ver, decorating them with beautiful plumages. 

The princes were educated together with the noble youth 
for the military service and became the commanders of the 
campaigns. Before they could lay the armor of a huaraco 
on, they had to pass various examinations and to go through 
performances which seemed to be similar to the installations 
of the European knights of the middle ages. Towards the 
close of November and in the beginning of December, in the 
weeks before the great summer festival, they slept during 
moonlight on the ground, ate little, and fasted strictly the last 
six days. Having recreated after such debilitating exercises, 
they took up sham-fights for the purpose of testing their abil- 
ity in arms. Thereupon tlje emperor or one of his family 
addressed them, reminding them of the heroic deeds of their 
predecessors, and especially laid constant conquest as the 
prime duty of the sons of Inti upon their hearts. The address 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



43 



having concluded, they were decorated with flower-wreaths. 
This happened yearly at the time of the third festival of the 
sun. But in the year in which the crown prince entered into 
manhood, the festival ended with the solemn act in which the 
imperial family, on bended knees, recognized the prince as 
heir to the throne. After these festivals the prince and his 
comrads in arms marched out with the army on a campaign, 
to put into practice what they had learned theoretically. 

Firearms were unknown to the Inca warriors. They 
fought with arrows and bows, pickaxes, spears, swords, clubs, 
and slings with which they hurled stones. They protected 
themselves by shields, breastplates, and helmets. The troops 
did not know tactics; in a battle they advanced in masses 
against an enemy. On the other hand they were trained to 
practice strict chivalry; for when they marched through the 
provinces they did not commit any nuisance, and were not 
troublesome to the inhabitants. On convenient places of the 
great thoroughfares were supply stations which were well 
filled with clothings, arms of all sorts, and food. In their 
ceaseless campaigns and wars the Incas trained an ably fight- 
ing army. However, were the soldiers not in active service, 
either because it was their time to rest or because a time of 
peace had come ; they nevertheless went through military 
practices two or three times a month. In exceedingly brilliant 
manner, similar to the triumphal processions of the Romans 
and with the same intention, victories over enemies were cel- 
ebrated. The road was covered with flowers by the females 
and at times it was decorated with triumphal arches. The 
conquered marched between the victorious soldiers, accom- 
panied and followed by people who sang songs of victory, ex- 
tolling the bravery of the Incas. Was the victory of great con- 
sequence for the empire, then a first class festival was cele- 
brated. 

The conquest of a hostile country was not undertaken, 
until friendly measures to bring same to terms, had been ex- 



44 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



hausted. After such endeavors the Inca personally or anoth- 
er member of his family called the army to arms and under- 
took the campaign. The purpose of the war was not to de- 
stroy the enemies, but rather to incorporate them into the 
empire. To this end they were, as soon as they declared them- 
selves conquered, kindly received and not made slaves, as 
pagan people in antiquity used to be and still are. We remem- 
ber the horrible wars of Asiatic rulers, which are recorded in 
history, as acts of barbarity; we recall to memory the long 
years of Roman warfare which were characterized by de- 
stroyed cities, by countries laid waste, by nations led into 
captivity, by unspeakable misery and calamity. Not so the 
Incas of Peru. In the manner of treating the conquered 
enemy they exhibited a high degree of modern humanity and 
decidedly excelled the Spanish intruders, as we shall learn. 
The Inca way of proceeding reminds the author of the mag- 
nanimity with which the unionists treated the southern con- 
federates after the last civil war of our country and of the 
careful manner with which the Germans annexed the pro- 
vinces of Alsace and Lorraine after the German-Franco war 
of 1870-71. Soon after the conquest of a country the Incas 
took steps to investigate matters in it and to regulate them 
according to the laws and regulations of the empire. Thereby 
they took pains not to molest the new subjects. All odious 
differences between the victors and the conquered were care- 
fully avoided, before the law the latter were considered to be 
on equal footing with the former. In case the chief of a sub- 
dued tribe or the king of a conquered country continued to 
live in enmity against the imperial government, he was brought 
to Cuzco, where he received evidences of the imperial good 
will and was familiarized with the customs of the court. If, 
on the contrary, the subdued rulers gave proofs of submis- 
sion, they were left in their home countries as supervisors, 
because they knew best the needs and particulars of their 
people; they, however, were placed under the supervision of 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



45 



an imperial commissioner. In order to show such kings, 
princes, and chiefs more evidences of imperial benevolence, 
their names were enrolled in the list of nobles soon after the 
conquest, whereby they obtained high privileges. Still more, 
the sons of such lords were taken to Cuzco to be trained to- 
gether with the youth of the Inca nobility serving simultane- 
ously as pledges for the submission of their fathers. And, 
finally, natives of conquered countries were allowed to move 
to the capital, where they could live entirely unconcerned and 
could retain their language, apparel, and customs ; but they 
had to occupy sections of the city that were assigned them. 
From this last circumstance it becomes clear why the suburbs 
of the capital had almost seven times as many people as the 
real city. In case the subdued tribes and peoples were of a 
warlike and haughty disposition, a larger number of families 
were removed and brought into districts of tried fidelity. Out 
of these districts in turn citizens migrated to occupy the va- 
cated places. In this way every rebellious spirit was sup- 
pressed or at least neutralized and also the national language, 
the Kechua, was transplanted into the newly incorporated 
countries. The propagation of this language the Incas fos- 
tered with great zeal; they prohibited to appoint to public 
office any one who was not able to use it. Also teachers were 
sent to those quarters to instruct the new subjects in the 
national language. It was the endeavor to have all the people 
of the empire speak the same tongue, whereby occasion was 
given to the formation of various dialects of the Kechua. It 
must have removed many tribal dialects and must have be- 
come the universal language of the empire ; for the most 
natives of Peru and Bolivia speak the Kechua as their mother 
tongue up to this day. The general propagation of this lan- 
guage throughout the empire, composed of numerous nations 
and tribes, is doubtless one of the greatest achievements of the 
Incas. Furthermore the Incas had temples erected to the Inti- 
religion in the subdued districts and sent priests to instruct the 



46 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



people in the national religion. While the cult of the sun was 
diffused everywhere and observed for public occasions, the 
particular religion of the natives was left undisturbed for 
domestic purposes. Thus certainly a religious mixture was 
developed which gave rise to odd formations of words and 
notions. The few Incas, however, succeeded in creating a 
well organized and unified empire out of the deeply sunken 
and barbarous peoples of the Ancient Peruvians, who ever- 
lastingly had waged war one with the other. This great and 
noble success they achieved by a prudent method of govern- 
ment and by the propagation of the Kechua language and the 
Inti-religion. 

6. THE DYNASTY OF THE INCAS. 
About 1250 to 1532. 

, Manco Capac was the supposed founder of the empire and 
the first of the dynasty of the Incas. He is said to have for- 
mulated the constitution and regulations which we have re- 
lated. At the time of his death he took the oath from his suc- 
cessor to abide by them faithfully and to govern the country 
in harmony with his paternal dispositions. His successors 
were earnestly endeavored to observe and execute the funda- 
mental laws of the country, left them as a legacy by the foun- 
der. History relates how they built upon the foundation al- 
ready laid and how they erected on Peru's majestic mountain 
plateaus the imposing and admirable governmental structure 
which we beheld. Manco Capac must be counted among the 
principal lawgivers of the ages. For the wisdom contained in 
the constitution and the nobility of mind exhibited were scarce- 
ly excelled by even the Greek and Roman lawgivers of antiqui- 
ty. Lycurgus, the Spartan, and Solon, the Athenian, initiated 
the power and greatness of their respective countries. The 
geographical location of Greece and the condition of affairs 
in those times were the causes why those men became known 



THE EMPIRE OF THE IN CAS 



47 



in history and why their names have been repeated the world 
over. But the Peruvian center of civilization did not lie in 
the path of the world's march and its founder and promoters 
consequently remained in obscurity; the empire of the Incas 
almost disappeared, before it became known. Therefore, here 
lies the historic duty to bring this civilization to light and to 
perpetuate it in history. 

The Incas knew how to surround themselves with splen- 
dor in order to make their authority sure and secure. Their 
principal insignia were the llautu, a ribbon about an inch wide 
with a red border and tassels, which was wound about the head 
two or three times ; elongated round goldplates, serving as 
ornaments for the ears ; two white and black feathers of the 
mysterious bird Curankeke; the chuspa or pocket for coca, 
a plant exclusively reserved for the Inca; and finally a gold 
or stone ax as scepter. Dressed in his beautiful robes made 
from extremely fine and beautified cloths of various colors, 
and adorned with the insignia of state the emperor made an 
imposing, majestic appearance. As son of Inti or descendant 
of the sun-god, he was respected, highly honored, fairly wor- 
shiped. His escort consisted of thousands. Nobody dared 
look at him without his consent. Conquered enemies came in 
his presence barefooted and with a small burden on their backs 
to indicate submission. On leaving the palace he obtained 
the most humble homage from the passers-by. On visiting the 
provinces to make investigations relative to the administra- 
tion and conditions of the country or to hear the complaints 
of his subjects in person, the people gathered in masses to 
welcome him with enthusiastic acclamations. 

After Manco Capac twelve successors followed whose 
endeavor it was to extend the at first small kingdom, in all 
directions. Though at the beginning several tribes joined the 
Inca of their own accord, afterwards the expansion had to be 
accomplished by military force. For many neighboring tribes 
had warlike dispositions, lived almost incessantly in quarrels, 



48 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and strifes one with the other, and would rather go down in 
battle than submit willingly to another power. The first three 
successors to the throne principally visited their domains, or- 
ganizing them solidly and introducing popular methods. 

Capac-Yupanki visited his territories in the course of two 
years, subdued two tribes who on account of pastures had 
carried on wars since a long time, and fixed the lines of their 
pastures. He armed the knights of royal blood and those of 
nobility. Towards the west he extended his kingdom to the 
Pacific ocean, by taking possession of the province of Camana, 
and towards the south to Cochabamba in Bolivia. Yupanki 
built the fort of Patirka and stretched a bridge across the river 
Apurimac. He organized the ceremony of the celebration of 
victories and regulated the labors performed in digging for 
gold and silver. From the precious metals idols were made. 
He also began the construction of canals for irrigation and 
the method to bury the dead with all their belongings. Of 
his seven sons Inca Roka (or Lloka) succeeded in the govern- 
ment. 

Inca Roka visited his territories during the course of three 
years. He opened schools for the sons of the chiefs whose 
tribes were incorporated into the kingdom, for they had to 
learn the Kechua. He took great care to develop the sys- 
tem of the quippus. This Inca is said to have had a body- 
guard of 600 who accompanied him in the campaigns. He 
incoporated the tribe of the Chaves who submitted readily, 
because they feared of being annihilated by another tribe with 
whom they had lived in enmity for a long time. 

Inca Roka's son, Yahviar-Huacar, followed in the govern- 
ment. His name signifies ; "He who weeps blood," which was 
given this ruler, because he had a red spot in his face near an 
eye. The sorcerers considered that spot to be a mysterious 
omen, — a prognostic which took hold of the mind of this Inca 
more and more, till he fell into a deep melancholy. As he was 
not disposed to wage war personally, he intrusted the military 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



49 



operations to his brother Huaccar Mayta. This one marched 
out with an army of 20,000 men and subdued the countries 
south as far as Atacama in Chile and north to Ambara. This 
ruler greatly disliked his first-born son Inca Ripac, wherefore 
he banished him from the court and commanded him to 
take charge of the herds of the sun. As herdsman, Inca 
Ripac had a very singular experience. As he pursued his oc- 
cupation a strange man appeared and told him that he was the 
brother of Manco Capac, his name being Huiracocha Inca, and 
that he had been sent by the sun to warn the emperor of a 
danger. Many provinces of the north had revolted against 
him and a large army was already marching against Cuzco. 
The strange man was completely dressed, was bearded, and 
promised the prince to protect him. When the latter an- 
nounced the warning at the court, he was not believed but 
thought to be a visionary. However, what soon happened 
proved the truth of the announcement. As the ruler had been 
of a mild disposition and but little inclined to carry on con- 
quests, the powerful chief of the Huamangos, called Anca 
Huello, had made use of the emperor's weakness and had 
preached revolt in various tribes, telling the people that they 
would lose their independence, if they would not destroy the 
increasing power of the Incas. Having thus aroused dissat- 
isfaction and a seditious spirit first among his own people, then 
among the Porcas, the Huancas, the Chancas who bore the 
yoke of the Incas reluctantly, Anca had united 30,000 men and 
was rapidly marching against Cuzco. Yahuar who in his timid- 
ity could not gather a sufficient force to oppose the invaders, 
left the capital and fled towards the south. Prince Ripac, de- 
ploring the departure of his father, collected as many troops 
as he could in the hour of imminent danger and marched out 
to offer battle. Fierce was the engagement and indecisive for 
some time ; but after a fight of eight hours the sons of Inti 
won a brilliant victory. In memory of the currents of blood 
that flowed the battle-field was called Yahuar Pampa, i. e. 
4 



50 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



bloody plain. Chief Anca's defeat had the effect that his ter- 
ritory was incorporated into the Inca empire. As he did not 
want others to rule where he had been chief, he went with all 
who were disposed to follow him into an exile, chosen by him- 
self. Large numbers from different tribes are said to have 
emigrated with him to the not distant Moyobamba. Yahuar- 
Huacar abdicated the throne in favor of prince Inca Ripac, 
who accepted the reins of government. 

In remembrance of the person who had appeared to him 
and given the warning, he accepted the name Huiracocha and 
in honor of the same he built the temple Coccha some 50 miles 
distant from Cuzco. Being a courageous and enlightened rul- 
er Inca Huiracocha contributed much to the development and 
expansion of his empire. In the renewed conquests he suc- 
ceeded in subduing Tucuman, the northwest section of present 
Argentina. He paid especial attention to agriculture, having 
canals excavated to irrigate the fields and pastures. The canals 
he thus had made were in all 450 miles long and 10 to 12 feet 
deep. Of this emperor it is said that he came to the knowl- 
edge of the true God and intended to destroy idolatry; but 
being addicted to sensuality, he abandoned the intention. At 
this time also an oracle pronounced the sayings which the 
Spaniards found at their conquest ; namely : "A people never 
seen before shall rob the Incas of their power," and "after 
twelve kings Peru shall be conquered." Huiracocha ordered 
to keep the sayings secret, fearing they might come true. 

His oldest son Inca Orca, being stupid, was obliged to 
resign the government, having ruled but seven days: His sec- 
ond son Pachacutec succeeded in the government. Huiracocha 
had given this son the name Pachacutec, which means : "He 
who gives the world new life," -because in his own active life 
he had saved and renovated the empire. 

Though Pachacutec was a great friend of conquests, he 
nevertheless gave the empire solidity and durability through 
his administration. His brother and oldest son conquered 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



51 



new territories in the north. They extended the empire on 
the plateau of the Andes as far as Cajamarca and on the coast- 
line to Trujillo in the old Peruvian kingdom of Great Chimu. 
Very desperate and bloody battles were fought in these wars. 
The Cajamarcans fought obstinately in the open fields, in ra- 
vines and canyons. Along the coast four kingdoms of the 
populous people of the Chinchas had existed since ages. They 
defended their possessions and rights with stubborn tenacity 
and destroyed many Inca armies. The resistance was so tena- 



cious that mountain after mountain, and valley after valley 
had to be taken. The important position Limahuana was brave- 
ly defended one month. The king of Chukimancu forced the 
invaders to renew their armies four times. Having conquered 
the kingdom of Great-Chimu, the Incas could count upon the 
assistance of the rulers of Chukimancu and Chismancu, be- 
cause they were old enemies of the king of Chimu on account 
of pasture-lands. In the mountainous country the Huancas 
and Conchucos dropped their old quarrels and unitedly de- 
fended their countries against the Incas with boldness. But 
nevertheless, the able Inca armies subdued the Old Peruvians, 




PACHACUTEC 



52 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



tribe after tribe, and kingdom after kingdom, proceeding with 
remarkable strategy and endurance. The valiant Emperor 
Pachacutec then proceeded to organize the countries and peo- 
ple conquered. He also promoted industries and sent to the 
coast for artisans who were able to work in silver, that they 
might instruct the people of the mountain regions in their oc- 
cupation. His son Yupanki was his successor on the throne. 

Inca Yupanki, who had already distinguished himself as 
a successful commander before he undertook to rule, visited 
his countries at various times. He was careful not to let the 
fields suffer for lack of irrigation, wherefore he had new canals 
dug out. At Cuzco he began to construct the fort which by 
means of subterranean passages, was united with the palaces. 
He was called "the pious," because he had many temples built 
throughout his domains. About the year 1450 Yupanki's army 
penetrated into Chile, subduing the northern part of the coun- 
try, and advanced as far as the river Maule. This river divides 
Chile in a northern and a southern half. On its northern 
bank the city of Talea lies where the author of this work lived 
and labored and where he wrote the original manuscript of 
division I of this book. The empire of the Incas, consequent- 
ly, extended south to this city. The historians of Chile, in 
their account on the invasion of the Inca army, state that they 
came from Tucuman and crossed the Andes to reach Chile. 
They marched through northern Chile victoriously, finding but 
little opposition, till on the southern banks of the Maule they 
encountered stubborn resistance. Those new enemies were 
the valiant tribes of the Promaucaes, of whom the Arauca- 
nians were the strongest and ablest. Later we shall give an 
interesting account of the Araucanians who played an impor- 
tant role in Chile's history. 

In consequence of this resistance the Incas were forced 
to retreat to the northern banks of the Maule. This happened 
about one hundred years before the Spaniards came into the 
country. Into north Chile, which was incorporated into the 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



53 



empire, the Incas introduced the benefits of their advanced 
civilization. Their government was mild and paternal, the 
contrary of the following Spanish administration. They im- 
proved agriculture by introducing irrigating canals, built bridg- 
es and roads, and instructed the Chilean natives in raising 
cattle, corn, and pot-plants. They introduced industry by 
showing them how to weave, how to burn earthen vessels, 
and how to take gold kernels out of the beds of rivers and 
creeks. 



The successor of Inca Yupanki in the government of Cuz- 
co was his son Tupac Yupanki. Conquests seemed to have be- 
come customary. It seemed to be a part of a successful reign 
of an Inca to have added new territory to his domains and to 
have incorporated new tribes and peoples into his nation. 
Were the Incas prompted by a desire to conquer, or were they 
animated by the humane feeling of bringing their own bless- 
ings to the uncivilized natives, the manner in which they pro- 
ceeded in spite of the losses occasioned by war, was highly 
beneficial to the inhabitants of the mountain and coast dis- 
tricts. The lover of history learns from the Inca campaigns 




TUPAC YUPANKI 



54 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



that the plateaus of the Andes and the border lands of the 
Pacific were inhabited by numerous tribes of a populous nation, 
that these tribes lived in constant warfares, and that, at least, 
some of them had arrived at a very low condition of exist- 
ence. 

Tupac Yupanki turned his attention towards the north. 
There existed the kingdom of Quito which at this time was 
ruled by its fourteenth king or Shyri, called Hualcopo-Duchi- 
sela. The Inca resolved to conquer the Shyri kingdom. He 
organized, for this purpose an army of 40,000 and put them 
at the command of his brave son Apu Sahuaraura. This one 
marched north and was in this campaign only able to take the 
two provinces Chimborazo and Canar with the city of Mocha 
from the king of Quito, who defended his territory bravely. 
After this occurrence Hualcopo-Duchisela died and his suc- 
cessor Cacha was so successful as to regain the province of 
Chimborazo. — Tupac Yupanki finished the fort at Cuzco 
which his father had begun, and left to his son Huayna Capac, 
who succeeded him on the throne, the conquest of the Shyri 
kingdom as a legacy. 

Huayna Capac subdued, at first, a number of tribes both 
through friendly endeavors and by military force, and then 
led his troops against the kingdom of Quito. The contending 
forces having met on the sandy plain of Tiocacha, a bloody 
combat ensued in which the Shyriites were repulsed. Some- 
what later the battle of Atuntaki was fought, in which King 
Cacha lost his life and Huayna Capac achieved a decisive vic- 
tory. The Inca then thought of establishing his power in 
Quito. But in spite of the brilliant victory of the Incas, the 
nobility and troops of the Shyriites proclaimed as queen the 
dead king's legitimate daughter, Pacha. To avoid further 
difficulties and revolutions, Huayna Capac resolved to wed the 
proclaimed young queen. Through matrimonial union he suc- 
ceeded in establishing his government in the conquered king- 
dom of Quito. lie made his residence in Quito where he built 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



55 



an elegant palace and where his beautiful Pacha bore him a 
son, whom he called Atahualpa. In Cuzco Huayna Capac 
had three sons, of whom the oldest, Huascar by name, was the 
legitimate successor to the throne. It was at the first birthday 
celebration of prince Huascar that the entire Inca nobility 
danced on the public plaza of Cuzco which was partly encircled 




HUAYNA CAPAC 



by the golden chain which had been made for that occasion. 
In fact, under Emperor Huayna Capac's administration the 
Inca empire attained its greatest expansion and highest glory. 
It extended from the river Maule in Chile to Pasto in present 
Colombia, had, consequently, a length of 2750 miles from 
south to north, and included the present countries of Ecuador, 
Peru, Bolivia, Tucuman — an Argentine province — and the 
northern half of Chile. Huayna Capac, having governed 
twelve years in Cuzco and thirty-eight in Quito, thought to 
perform an act of justice by dividing the empire between his 
two sons Huascar and Atahualpa, the two being half-brother's. 
To Huascar he bequeathed all the former empire and to Ata- 
hualpa, who maternally was a descendant of the Shyriites, the 



56 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



kingdom of Quito. This division led to a separation of the 
brothers later. Shortly before his death Huayna Capac heard 
of discoveries which men of an unknown race were making on 
the northern coast of the continent. This rumor disquieted 
his mind, fearing that Huiracocha's prognostic : "After twelve 
kings Peru shall be conquered," might be realized. 

Huascar, in Cuzco, and Atahnalpa, in Quito, managed 
their public affairs the first four years peacefully. Then Huas- 
car, who, indeed, had by far the larger part of the empire, 
began to think the division had been made unfair and it be- 
hooved him to govern the empire undivided. He, therefore, 
demanded of Atahualpa to acknowledge his superiority and to 
pay him tribute. Huascar's insinuation on the one hand and 
Atahualpa's pride and progressive spirit on the other hand 
became the causes of an unlucky war between the brothers. 
The opposing armies marched to meet one another and en- 
gaged in a rough encounter at Ambato, near Mount Chimbora- 
zo ; the fortune of arms was favorable to Atahualpa. The 
latter, quickly resolved, ordered his two best generals, Kiskis 
and Challkuchina to march the army via Cajamarca against 
Cuzco. Huascar resolved to await the enemy in the vicinity 
of the capital, being so advised by his council. At Kipaipau, 
ten miles from Cuzco, the armies clashed again, a desperate 
battle was fought, and Atahualpa was victorious also here, his 
troops being better disciplined. Huascar himself was made 
prisoner. His half-brother treated him with the consideration 
his rank required ; but nevertheless ordered to take him to 
fort Sausa and to keep him there in secure confinement. This 
happened in 1531. The entire Inca empire is now in the 
hands of gallant Atahualpa. Intoxicated with success, born 
aloft by eighty of his noblemen, and accompanied by four reg- 
iments, he reaches Cajamarca on his homeward journey. While 
bathing and fasting at Cajamarca, a message is sent to him by 
some strangers with whom he arranges a friendly interview. 
Those strangers were the Spaniards who since a number of 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



57 



years had navigated the coasts south of Panama and had 
finally reached the hospitable shores of Peru. Atahualpa on 
his part ordered his troops to receive them kindly and not to 
fight, while the Spaniards by mean intrigue resolved to seize 
the confiding Inca. And so they did at the following interview, 
robbing him there of his empire and later taking his life. In 
the meantime General Challkuchina watched over the incar- 
cerated Huascar in Sausa whose life came to an end in the 
prison. According to some historians Atahualpa himself had 
ordered to kill the prisoner and to throw his remains into the 
river, whereby he attracted the hatred o.f many Peruvians. 
According to other historians the general put him to death of 
his own accord, for fear Huascar might be favored by the 
foreigners and regain his throne. With Atahualpa's tragic end 
the thread of the Inca history breaks. How the Spaniards 
killed him and came into the possession of the country, how 
they took up the broken thread and continued the Peruvian 
history the kind reader will learn from the history of Spanish 
conquests which follows in our second division. 

ORIGIN OF THE INCAS. 

Who were the Incas and whither had they come? It 
ought to be clear to the reader that the Incas did not belong to 
the Old Peruvian Aimares among whom they first settled 
down. For they introduced a new religion, the worship of the 
sun and the moon, while the Ancient Peruvians had since a 
thousand years, worshiped Pachacamac, as we shall learn 
from their history. And the Incas spoke a language which, 
the Aimares did neither understand nor learn. It is fairly un- 
thinkable that a married couple should rise among their own 
people, teaching an entirely new religion and speaking a lan- 
guage not understood by the rest. The religion and language 
of the Incas are evidences of their immigration into Peru. Nor 
will the reader take it as historic that the couple had come 
forth out of lake Titicaca, nor that they had been sent by the 



5o 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



sun whom they claimed to be their father. These presump- 
tions they made use of to give themselves a supernatural ap- 
pearance, to put themselves into the confidence of the Aimares. 

Having established the fact that the Incas were immi- 
grants among the Aimares, we repeat the questions: Who 
were they and whither had they come? Many of their cus- 
toms and usages, which belong to their civilization essentially, 
point to their Mongolian origin. Their knot-script (quip- 
pus) and running carriers (chaskis) were, in antiquity, gen- 
erally customary among the Mongolians. The fact that the 
Incas plowed the so;l was an observation of a religious Chinese 
act of former times. Also the entire system of the Inca sun 
worship, including its deities and cult, remind of an old Chi- 
nese religion. They looked upon the sun as their male god 
and upon the moon as his sister-wife and in consequence the 
founder of the Inca empire claimed to have married his sister 
and the law of the land demanded that the heir to the throne 
wed his sister. By this custom the religious idea that Killa, 
the lunar goddess, is sister-wife of Inti, the solar-god, was 
ingeniously expressed. Throughout the Inca generation an 
Inca son could marry an Inca daughter only, the members of 
the Inca generation marrying within their own circle. There- 
by they became an exclusive extended family. This exclu- 
sion is Chinese. The Chinese call themselves ''the hundred 
generations" up to the present day, and, in fact, in the im- 
mensely numerous nation are today not many more than a 
hundred names of generations. The word "Inca" was the title 
of the emperor, of the family and the generation. And lastly 
the patriarchal family relation of the Incas was incorporated 
in their constitution, as is the case in China. This was based 
upon a mild patriarchal despotism which, as we have learned, 
developed in Peru into a civil communism. Thus the reader 
will be convinced that the immigrated Incas of Peru were 
descendants of the Chinese. 

But how? Let us gather the facts of our research: 1. The 



THE EMPIRE OF THE INCAS 



59 



Inca empire was founded about 1250 A. D. ; 2. Its founders 
migrated into Peru; 3. These or rather their forefathers had 
come from China or from a country bordering China. It is 
not admissible that the founders of the Inca empire themselves 
came directly from China; first because a natural route, say 
an ocean current, does not lead from one country to the other, 
and secondly because the Inca religion and constitution were 
to a large extent not any more in use in China in the 13th cen- 
tury. For these reasons the forefathers of the Incas will 
have left their Chinese homes in an earlier century, at the time 
when knot-script, running carriers etc., etc. were still custom- 
ary there. From Dr. Ebrard's researches which we accept as 
historically correct we add the following: 1. The Toltecs of 
Mexico were a Chinese people who had immigrated from Cal- 
ifornia, where they had lived some time, into Mexico probably 
in the 7th century. They had the tradition to have arrived in 
California after a long sea voyage. — 2. The Toltecs founded 
a flourishing state in Mexico with the city of Tula as capital, 
governing it some three or four centuries. Towards the year 
1000 A. D. famine and pestilence reduced their numbers and 
the barbarous Chichimeks, coming also from the north, deci- 
mated them still more and drove the remnants south into Nic- 
aragua. 3. These remnants, followed by the wild Chichimeks 
and driven from their Nicaraguan settlements also, renewed 
their wanderings towards the south and some of them reached 
the hospitable coasts and mountain plateaus of Peru, where 
they introduced themselves as children of Inti, as Incas. 



Numbers 
A Society, 
Increased Numbers, 
A Nation, 
Remnants, 
Several Persons, 



Route 
from China, 
in California, 
in Mexico, 
in Nicaragua, 
to Peru, 



Time 
about 500 A. D. ; 
the 6th century ; 
until after 1000 A. D. ; 
in the 13th century ; 
1250 A. D. 



PERIOD II 



JAPANESE MONGOLIAN NATIONS AND TRIBES, 
AND AFRICAN TRIBES 

ioo to 1250 A. D. 




A) ANCIENT PERUVIANS. 



We have learned that the plateaus and coastlands of Peru 
were inhabited when the Incas immigrated. Their 
armies constantly met with new kingdoms and tribes whom 
they conquered, but who, notwithstanding, were sufficiently 
powerful to defeat them at various times. These predeces- 
sors of the Incas are called Ancient Peruvians and, indeed, 
afterwards constituted the masses of the Inca empire./ The 
military history of the Incas teaches us that their predecessors 
were no longer united in one consolidated nation, but that they 
were rather divided in many separate peoples and tribes, whose 
chiefs claimed sovereign rights, carried on wars one with the 
other, and had, each for himself, to fight the Incas. For this 
very reason they were so much more certainly defeated. How- 
ever, the Ancient Peruvians formed one single brotherhood in 
spite of their many governments. They all had originated 
from the same source, as the ruins of the uniformed edifices 
scattered all over Peru, the works of art and the religion com- 
mon to all, will show. The better organized peoples were 
ruled by kings, the tribes by curacas, i. e. chiefs. The farthest 
developed were the Aimares who inhabited the tablelands of 
Lake Titicaca. Their domain extended southward far into 
Bolivia and northward beyond the plains of Cuzco ; the ruins 
of Tiahuanaco especially testify of their civilization. North 
of the Aimares, in Central Peru, the Huancas lived on both 
slopes of the Andes ; the forts at Junni exhibit their devel- 
opment in architecture. The slopes along the Pacific coast 
were, for a distance of about 1300 miles, the home of the in- 
dustrious Chinchas who were separated into four kingdoms ; 
namely, Chimu, Chukimancu, Chismancu, and Chincha. The 

61 



62 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



fort and the prison north of Pativilca, the place of religious 
worship, Pachacamac, in the valley of Lurin, and the palace 
of Great Chimu at Trujillo give testimony of the ability and 
diligence of the Chinchas. North Peru was inhabited by the 
Cajamarkinos who are characterized as industrious and kind 
towards strangers. The most peculiar characteristic of this 
tribe seems to be their burying-places : these all show a sur- 
prising uniformity, whether located on the sides of the moun- 
tains or hewn out in the steep inclines of the deepest ravines 
or dug out of large masses of piled-up rocks. 

Besides the more or less civilized peoples mentioned, there 
belonged to the Ancient Peruvians a large number of savage 
tribes, who, having fallen low, lived in shameless vices and 
cruel barbarism, avenging their wrongs in continuous fights 
and battles, and consuming their prisoners of war. The Chir- 
i yuan os, for instance, "were a people without law and good 
habits. They ate human flesh, not even sparing their deceased. 
They drank the blood of those whom they stabbed, and had 
sexual intercourse with daughters, mothers, and sisters." 
When the Incas were about to subdue the Chiriguanos, their 
troops, seeing the atrocities, were struck with horror in such 
a measure that they were obliged to abandon the expedition. 

In their dress and especially in the ornaments for the 
heads the Ancient Peruvians observed a great variety of 
forms and colors. They wore caps of different sizes, which 
they adorned with horns or feathers and fastened with broad 
or narrow ribbons. Some had their hair cut, others allowed 
it to grow and to hang in braids on the sides of the head, and 
still others wore it tied together on top of the head. 

The degree of advancement of prehistoric nations is main- 
ly recovered from the ruins of their edifices and the remains 
of their works of industry. We will, therefore, make a closer 
acquaintance of the Ancient Peruvians, who are little known 
to the present generation, but who were grand in bygone ages, 
by making a journey of investigation through Ancient Peru. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 63 



THE ANTIQUITIES OF THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS. 

Tiahuanaco is a small village, lying south of Lake Titica- 
ca. In its vicinity we strike upon very important ruins of the 
Old Peruvian Aimares. We follow P. R. Cappa's citations 
from the detailed description of Desjardin. These ruins are 
said to exhibit the greatest progress of the celebrated antiqui- 
ties of America. In spite of the material they have furnished 
for various buildings in modern times, in spite of the diggings 
after hidden treasures, and in spite of having been disposed to 
the demolishing influences of the atmosphere since centuries ; 
an abundance of material remains for study and admiration. 
The Incas, being guided by wise considerations, appear to have 
left these ruins untouched. They consist of three - separate 
structures which are called fort, temple, and palace of the 
Inca. 

The fort is a grand terraced edifice in the form of a trun- 
cated pyramid and is composed of three terraces which are 
surrounded and held together by walls. The base is a paral- 
lelogram, whose four sides lie exactly in the directions of the 
cardinal points and are 660 and 500 feet long respectively. 
The walls which surround the terraces were built of large 
stones placed perpendicularly. In the exterior of these stones 
excavations were chiseled, into which small stones were placed 
in layers one upon another and in such a way that each large 
stone obtained the appearance of a curvet or of a kind of rel- 
ievo whereby the whole wall assumed a beautiful aspect. The 
walls are immensely thick; there are roads' leading along 
their top. Mr. Chudy says that near the terrace which faces 
towards the east and rises only to half the height of the fort, 
he found caves which he could not enter on account of the suf- 
focating air. The top of the edifice has been deeply excavated, 
undoubtedly by diggers of hidden treasures. The name of 
fort which has of late been given to this terraced structure, 



64 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



does not designate it properly. As it was built on a plain it 
is very probable that it served a different purpose. 

Northeast of the fort is the so-called temple. This is a 
terraced structure with a square base, whose sides have a 
length of 400 feet each. It is fenced in by walls, built of un- 
hewn stones. The ground, that nearest surrounds it, is stud- 
ded with enormous stone pillars. The upper parts of the 
pillars are hewn and they are placed in rows and at equal dis- 
tances. Though they extend, far into the ground, yet they 
rise 18 to 20 feet above the same. The edifice itself must 
have been without a roof, for in its interior nothing can be 
seen that could have served as a support for a roof, 400 feet 
square. Each corner of the edifice consists of one single huge 
pillar-like stone which likewise has excavations for the purpose 
of embellishment. 

In front of the side facing towards the east the temple 
had a kind of pillared porch composed of ten enormous cor- 
nered stone columns, with diameters varying from 3 to 7 feet. 
Their upper parts are hewn and they are all of about the same 
height, a circumstance which seems to indicate that they had 
supported something. Not far from the corner facing to- 
ward the northeast is the immense door, wrought out of one 
single stone, which is 10 feet high, 13 feet wide and whose 
upper part is now burst asunder. 

The front of the edifice is decorated by four rows of 
sculptured images. Each of the three upper rows is com- 
posed of eight images, each being inclosed by a square. In 
the centre of these three rows is a very large image, more 
prominent than the others, and it occupies a space of 36 J/2 
feet in height and 7 feet 10 inches in width. The members 
of this central figure are poorly proportioned. The head is 
half as long as the trunk, the arms which cross one an- 
other look like dropping off, and are so long that they would 
reach to the feet, if they hanged down. The head deserves 
special notice, for from it proceed straight lines, which ter- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 65 



minate in circles and in heads of tigers and condors. In each 
hand the image holds two scepters, shaped like coiled up 
snakes, the one pointing upward, the other downward. The 
scepter in the right hand pointing upward ends in the head of 
a tiger, and the one pointing downward in the head of a con- 
dor, while the scepter held by the left hand terminates re- 
versely. The images next to the central one represent men 
with heads of tigers and condors, those on the extreme ends 
of the rows, men with wings, the rest, men with crowns on 
their heads. All are in positions as though they worshiped 
the large central image, kneeling with one knee on the ground 
towards it and inclining their scepters towards the correspond- 
ing scepters of the same. Finally, in the extreme quadrant of 
the lowest row are images of men, which wear caps decorated 
with feathers, and are apparently getting ready to blow a kind 
of horn. — On the west side, the temple has two niches just 
above the ground and two others above the frieze which sur- 
rounds the entire, edifice like a border. 

The third structure at Tiahuanaco, called palace of the 
Inca, was neither built as a residence for an Inca nor used by 
any as such, and lies at a distance of 1000 feet from the fort. 
This also is a terraced structure and though 570 feet long and 
404 feet wide, it is but 20 feet high. The stones of the walls 
are of extraordinary dimensions. Niches with handsomely 
shaped arches were hewn in some of them. These arches are 
about the only ones that have been found in the New World 
of Pre-European times. In front of the palace a porch was 
built that leads out to an extensive esplanade, which perhaps 
served the ancient inhabitants for entertainments and exer- 
cises. 

The statues must have been numerous. Eight have been 
preserved; five are in the village of Tiahuanaco, two are in 
the present capital of Bolivia, La Paz, and a broken one is on 
the road that connects both places/ — The purpose of the 
three edifices .is not clearly understood bv men who have in- 

5 



66 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



vestigated the ruins. But these gigantic terraced structures 
with their enormous stones, embellished with a kind of relief- 
work, with niches, colossal cornered pillars, and ingenious, 
though artless works of sculpture, were built by the Pre-In- 
caic Aimares. They may for centuries have served the princes 
of that people for residences. They likewise erected the grand 
edifices on the islands of lake Titicaca. Then there are also 
other remnants of entirely different structures in this same 
region. These are mounds, 100 feet high and cannot — ac- 
cording to Dr. Ebrard — have been thrown up by the Aimares, 
for these erected heavy stone structures. The earthen eleva- 
tions must be of Malay origin, because the Malay race threw 
up mounds for the purpose of burying their dead and for relig- 
ious worship. 

The Chinchas, who inhabited the table-lands between the 
Andes and the Pacific, were an industrious, skillful, and en- 
terprising people. The entire table-lands of Great Chimu are 
full of antiquities, which demonstrate their diligence and 
compete with the achievements of modern times. The North 
American, Dr. E. R. Heath, gives us highly interesting details 
about the works of the Chinchas and about those of the kin- 
dred Huancas. The latter had made their abodes in the dread- 
fully wild mountain-lands of Middle Peru, on that plateau 
where the mountain-peaks rise far above the clouds and are 
clad, even under the tropical sun, in eternal snow. They, 
indeed, had made their homes where the condor lives and 
where the largest river on earth, the Amazon, rises. The little 
we cite from Dr. Heath's informations will demonstrate satis- 
factorily "that nothing in modern times, even not the canals 
and railroads many thousand miles long, can rival with the 
gigantic works of this mysterious people, that has passed out 
of existence and has left those cyclopean monuments as silent 
witnesses of their greatness and power. 

While on the entire Peruvian table-lands near the coast, 
over a distance of 1235 miles, there lie ruins scattered of 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



67 



which some have incredible dimensions ; in the interior of the 
Andes, one can behold the silent remains of by-gone enterprise 
on all the mountains and their slopes. There is not a single 
ravine leading from the sea into the interior where there are 
no ruins of walls, of forts, of cities, or of burial places, or very 
extensive gardens, laid out artificially, or canals for irrigation 
either beneath or above the ground and of surprising length. 
On the inhospitable plateaus of the Andes, even on the eastern 
mountain slopes, in the midst of forests, unexplored and al- 
most impenetrable, in regions deserted by man, where silence 
now reigns ; there one meets them — speechless witnesses of 
the kingdoms that once rose, flourished for centuries and final- 
ly fell into decay.' Truly, most interesting it is to trace hu- 
man progress and power in the mountains, where the height 
of land and the severity of climate seem to prohibit living 
creatures to exist. But even there are majestic edifices built 
of granite, porphyry and other hard stones, which neither the 
demolishing forces of the atmosphere, nor the geological chang- 
es, nor the shakings of the earthquakes, nor the ruinous hands 
of diggers after hidden treasures, could destroy. Without 
mortar of any kind, those stones keep together in the walls, 
temples, houses, towers, forts, reservoirs, and vaults ; they 
remain in proper position by virtue of the inclination of the 
walls and of the exact fitting of each stone in its location. The 
stones which are of six and eight sides, are so smoothly pol- 
ished and the sides of the one stone fit those of another so 
perfectly that it is almost impossible for any one to perceive 
the joinings. These stones, selected regardless of shape or 
bulk, are of all sizes from one-half cubic foot to 1500 cubic 
feet. Consequently, it would be mere chance, would any one 
find two stones among a million whose sides are of the same 
dimensions. 

The hewn stones of 1500 cubic feet having a length of 
15 feet, a width of 10 feet, and a thickness of 10 feet, or being 
20 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 7y 2 feet thick, were evidently 



68 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



still larger before they had been hewn. Considering this, it 
remains a mystery how those people could lift such stones out 
of the quarries, convey them in a mountainous country, and fit 
them into the walls, since they were unacquainted with ma- 
chines and iron tools. To the Chinchas it was no mystery ; 
they did it; their walls are the proof. 

Of recent date are the explorations at Kelab, where a 
structure of walls of chiseled stones has been found, that -is 
3660 feet long, 500 feet wide, and 150 feet high and rests upon 
a thoroughly solid foundation. On top of this structure rises 
another of the same width and height, but of a length of only 
600 feet. This colossal wall structure was used for burying 
purposes, for it has niches of a foot and a half wide and high 
and of 3 feet deep, in which the skeletons sit. They rest in 
a sitting position, inclining forward, the arms embracing the 
legs, and the chin resting upon the knees. Many are sewed 
up in skins and covered up with cotton blankets, most of which 
are embroidered. — In the wall structures are three openings 
for doors which are worthy of notice, as one side of each open- 
ing forms part of a circle and the other a complete angle. 
From below a slightly inclining road is leading up on the wall 
on which one ascends almost imperceptibly. Half way up 
stands a sentry-box of stone, and on the top of the wall is a 
hiding-place with a small window, through which one can look 
over a considerable part of the province. On the steep rocky 
north side rises a wall of adobes which has open windows at 
the height of 600 feet. Neither does any one know the pur- 
pose they served, nor is it possible to get near them. Very 
likely the origin of these cyclopean burying- walls also lies in 
Pre-Incaic times. At Kelab there are also burial-places shaped 
like ovens and called Chulpas. They have a height of 6 feet 
and a circumference of 24 feet and are floored with flat stones 
for the dead to rest upon. In different parts of Peru Chulpas 
are found which are surprisingly neat and plain. As a rule 
they have a height of 38 feet, a diameter of 15 feet below and 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



69 



of 17 feet above, their circumference increasing from below 
upwards. 

But how imposing the walls and edifices of the Chinchas 
and Huancas may be, compared with their works of industry 
they are only of subordinate importance. The density of pop- 
ulation and the condition of the soil of the rainless table-lands 
and of the wild mountainous districts made it necessary for 




CHULPAS 

them to create artificial fields and gardens. To designate 
them we will retain the Spanish name and call them "Andens" 
An anden was a tract of land arranged on a mountain-slope 
or in the upper part of a ravine and filled up with fertile soil. 
For the natives erected strong walls across the upper parts of 
ravines and filled the basin with fertile soil ; in this way many 
fields were created in the higher districts of the Andes. But the 
andens were principally arranged on mountain-slopes. The 
people built walls about three to four feet high along the 
lower side of a mountain incline, filled the space between this 
wall and the incline with soil, drew a second wall along the 
verge of the soil, again filling the space between, and so on 



70 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



until the mountain-slope was covered with about 25 walls and 
terraces of soil, fit for cultivation. All the terraces on both 
mountain-sides of a ravine constituted one anden. Since the 
ravines or deep valleys, according to Dr. Heath, extend from 
the sea from 30 to 100 miles into the interior and run far up 
into the Andes, he estimates the length of each wall in a ravine 
to be at least 10 miles. From this results the total length of 
all the 50 walls in one ravine to be 500 miles, which length, 
he thinks, an exact measurement would more than double. 
Moreover, he estimates, that, for a distance of 1200 miles, 
from north to south, there are 500 andens, and arrives at the 
astonishing conclusion that, for the sole purpose of agriculture, 
there was erected in Peru a total length of walls of at least 
250,000 miles. These walls would, consequently, surround 
the earth ten times at the equator. — Finally, they leveled 
proper places in the mountains and prepared them for culti- 
vation. Such leveled tracts, in case they were in convenient 
locations, the Incas made use of later on in laying their re- 
nowned highway. All these andens certainly had to be irri- 
gated by water flowing from the mountains. For this purpose 
they constructed canals many, many miles long. 

The farthest developed kingdom of the Chinchas was that 
of Great Chimu. The ruins of the ancient capital of that 
country lie near the present Peruvian city of Trujillo in a 
beautiful valley 15 miles long and 6 wide through which the 
river Moche flows. Mr. Squier says concerning.it: "The city 
is at present a desert of walls, inclosing large tracts of land of 
which each is a labyrinth of dwelling houses and of other edi- 
fices fallen into ruins." In one city ward lies a celebrated 
palace of the sovereigns, in another a reservoir which is 450 
feet long, 195 feet wide and 60 feet deep and has a staircase 
leading down to the bottom. Outside the city ruins, at a dis- 
tance of about a quarter of a mile, there are two tracts of land 
closed in by walls, being at right angles. The one tract which 
is 252 feet by 222 feet and is inclosed by walls 14 feet high and 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 




72 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



6 feet thick, contains a truncated pyramid whose base is 162 
feet square and height 150 feet. It seems to have been the 
burying place of girls of 5 to 15 years of age. The walls of 
the other tract were 20 feet high and 8 feet thick and inclose a 
pyramid whose base is 240 by 210 feet. Strange it is that 
there is a mound within these walls 172 feet long, 152 feet wide, 
and 40 feet high. — 

The inhabitants of Great Chimu were skillful in manufac- 
turing articles of stone, gold, silver, copper, bones, wood, 
feathers, skin, cotton, wool etc. Of this raw material wood 
was least used, because they lacked the proper tools to work 
it. They, however, knew how to work very pretty forms and 
figures out of clay and metal. They are, indeed, said to have 
been able to imitate almost all the forms they found in the 
animal kingdom. For instance, they gave their earthen and 
metal vessels the forms of fishes, lizards, snakes, birds etc., 
and there are still vessels found so ingeniously fashioned that 
they imitate the sounds of the animals whose figures they bear, 
while the liquor they contain is being poured out. They 
distinguished themselves also in manufacturing cotton and 
woolen goods, producing the greatest abundance of all classes 
of goods. It is reported that their fine dress goods compete 
with those which the factories of Manchester and New Eng- 
land bring on the market in our days. Mr. Squier examined 
a piece of cloth and found 62 threads of warp and woof to the 
square inch. — Their agricultural implements the Ancient 
Peruvians made out of bronze. 

In the maritime country of the Chinchas was Pachacamac, 
their main sanctuary, the Mecca of the Ancient Peruvians. 
There they had erected the main temple to their national god 
Pachacamac. The ruins of this city lie 20 miles south of Lima, 
the capital of modern Peru, on the banks of the river Lurin, 
on a high elevation overlooking the sea. When the Spaniards 
under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro conquered Incaic 
Peru in 1532, the city of Pachacamac had been in the posses- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 73 



sion of the Incas already 150 years. At that time Estete, a 
contemporary of Pizarro wrote : "The city is something grand. 
It is surrounded by a wall which now is destroyed, has large 
gates for entrance and streets and many spacious houses with 
terraces, like those in Spain. It must be very old, for a large 
number of edifices are fallen into ruins." When the Incas 
introduced their religion the worship of Pachacamac had to 
recede, for in virtue of the policy of the Incas the sun-god 
obtained the preference at all public events, as we have learned. 
The temple Pachacamac was changed into a temple of the sun. 
Aside of it the Incas erected a house for the virgins of the sun 
which they inclosed with five walls. The idol Pachacamac 
was placed in a side room of the temple, where it was in a neg- 
lected condition at the time of the Spanish invasion. For 
Estete reports the condition in which he found the idol and 
the room it occupied as follows : "The temple is a good build- 
ing, well finished and painted. The idol was kept in a well 
locked, very dark and filthy room. It was made of wood and 
was very unclean. This the people believe to be God who 
created and preserves all things. At its feet were some gol- 
den ornaments, that had been offered him. The idol is rever- 
enced so highly that no person but his priests and servants 
whom he is said to have elected, is permitted to enter into his 
presence Or to touch the walls of the temple. He is wor- 
shiped as God throughout the country and many valuable 
gifts are offered to him. From a distance of 900 miles and 
still farther, the pilgrims come to bring their offerings con- 
sisting of gold, silver, and cloth. These they hand over to the 
keeper, who goes in to the idol in order to question him, and 
who returns with the received answer. All the people who 
come annually far distances to offer their tribute to this tem- 
ple, have houses in which they deposit their offerings." From 
this it appears that Pachacamac was also used as an oracle to 
whom the people resorted to interrogate in regard to difficult 
emergencies of life and possible future events. Father Arriaga 



74 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



who labored as Catholic missionary in Peru at the time of the 
Spanish conquest, describes the zealous character of the Peru- 
vian pagan worship as follows : "The superior and subordinate 
priests, clad in their garments and, decorated with feathers, 
came with copper and silver trumpets and large sea-shells, on 
which they blew to summon the people, and brought offerings 
for the gods in pots, jugs, and vases. The people, especially 
the women, came with timbrels and a large number of cunas — 
a kind of cradle — on whose sides figures, mainly heads of 
animals which were objects of reverence, had been carved out. 
Various families brought the dry bodies of their deceased an- 
cestors and took such also out of the temples, as though the 
living and the dead came together for judgment." Whether 
this gathering took place in harmony with the usages of the 
Inti religion or that of the Ancient Peruvians, father Arriaga 
does not report. Pie heard the confession of 6,794 persons, 
made 679 priests of the pagan worship do penance, and — what 
enables one to cast a glance upon Peru's pagan condition in 
the 16th century — he destroyed 5,676 idols and other objects 
of idolatrous worship; he also punished 73 sorceresses and 
witches. 

The Spaniards, out of contemptible thirst for gold, re- 
spected neither the sanctity of temples nor the rights of pri- 
vate houses, — while on the contrary the Incas, indeed, no- 
where laid their hands upon home treasures and objects dear 
and sacred to the people they conquered. — The Catholic Span- 
iards carried 1687 lbs. of gold and 16,000 lbs. of silver away 
from the temple of Pachacamac. The real treasure of the 
temple, which was estimated at 25,000 lbs. of gold and silver, 
had been hidden by the inhabitants somewhere between Lurin 
and Lima. Pizzaro had promised one of his captains, as 
recompense for his services, the silver nails and tacks with 
which the silver plates bearing the name of the god, had been 
fastened to the walls of the temple. The captain claimed his 
part of the booty and received not less than 32,000 oz. of sil- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



75 



ver. Some halls of the temple with niches and figures have 
been preserved up to the present time. 

The tombs still existing give us highly interesting and in- 
structive information concerning the industry and domestic life 
of the Chinchas. Not very long ago Mr. Squier opened a 
family tomb in the city of Pachacamac of which he gives the 
following detailed account : "This tomb, walled with adobes — 
sun-dried bricks — was four feet square and three feet deep, 
and contained five bodies: one of a man of middle age; an- 
other of a full-grown woman; a third of a girl of about four- 
teen years ; a fourth of a boy about seven, and the fifth an 
infant. The little child was placed between the father and the 
mother ; the boy was by the side of the man, and the girl by the 
side of the woman. All were enveloped in a braided network, 
or sack of rushes, or coarse grass, bound closely around the 
bodies by cords of the same material. 

"Under the outer wrapper of braided reed around the 
man, was another of stout, plain cotton cloth, fastened with a 
variegated cord of llama wool. Next came the envelope of 
cotton cloth of fine texture, which, when removed, disclosed 
the body, shrunken and dried hard, of the color of mahogany, 
but well preserved. The hair was long and slightly reddish, 
perhaps from the effect of the nitre in the soil. Passing around 
the neck, and carefully folded on the knees, on which the head 
rested, was a net of the twisted fiber of the ajave, a plant not 
found on the coast. The threads were as fine as the finest used 
by our fishermen, and the meshes were neatly knotted, precise- 
ly after the fashion of today. Wrapped up in a cloth, beneath 
his feet were some fishing-lines of various sizes, and some cop- 
per hooks, barbed like ours, and some copper sinkers. 

"Under each armpit was a roll of white alpaca wool, and 
behind the calf of each leg were a few thick short ears of var- 
iegated maize, or Indian corn. A small thin piece of copper 
had been placed in the mouth, corresponding perhaps to the 
oblos which the ancient Greeks put into the mouths of their 



76 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



dead as a fee for Charon; and suspended by a thread around 
the neck was a pair of bronze tweezers, probably for plucking 
out the beard." — The man evidently had supported himself 
and family by fishing and by tilling the soil, and we have before 
us a family of the Old Peruvian working-class. 

"The wife, beneath the same coarse outer-wrapping of 
braided reeds, was enveloped in a blanket of alpaca wool, finely 
spun and woven in a style known as 'three-ply,' in two colors, a 
soft chestnut-brown and white. Below this was a sheet of 
fine cotton cloth, with sixty-two threads of warp and woof to 
the inch. 

"It had a diamond-shaped pattern, formed by very elab- 
orate lines of ornament, inside of which, or in the spaces 
themselves, were representations of monkeys, which seemed to 
be following each other as up and down stairs. Beneath this 
was a rather coarsely woven, yet soft and flexible cotton 
cloth, twenty yards or more in length, wrapped in many folds 
around the body of the woman, which was in a similar con- 
dition, as regards preservation, to that of her husband. 

"Her long hair was less changed by the salts of the soil 
than that of her husband, and was black, and in most places 
lustrous. In one hand she held a comb, made by setting, what 
I took to be, the bony parts — the rays of fishes' fins — in a slip 
of the hard woody part of the dwarf palm-tree, into which they 
were not only tightly cemented, but firmly bound. 

"In her other hand were the remains of a fan with a cane 
handle, from the upper points of which radiated the faded 
feathers of parrots and humming-birds. Around her neck was 
a triple necklace of shells, dim in color and exfoliating layer 
after layer, when exposed to light and air. Resting between 
her body and bent-up knees were several small domestic im- 
plements, among them an ancient spindle for spinning cotton, 
half covered with spun thread, which connected with a mass 
of the raw cotton. This simple spinning apparatus consisted 
of a section of the stalk of the quinoa, half as thick as the little 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



77 



fingers, and eight inches long, its lower end fitting through a 
whirl-bob of stone to give it momentum when set in motion 
by a twirl of the forefinger and thumb, grasping a point of 
hard wood stuck in the upper end of the spindle. The contri- 
vance is precisely the same as that in universal use by the In- 
dian women of the present day. One of the most interesting 
articles found with the woman was a kind of wallet, composed 
of two pieces of thick cotton cloth of different colors, ten 
inches long by five wide, the lower end of each terminating 
in a fringe, and the upper end of each corner in a long braid, 
the braids of both being again braided together. These cloths 
placed together were carefully folded up and tied by braids. 
The pocket contained some 'Lima beans' ; a few pods of cotton 
gathered before maturity, the husks being still on ; some frag- 
ments of an ornament of thin silver; and two little thin disks 
of the same material, three-tenths of an inch in diameter, and 
pierced with a small hole near its edge, too minute for orna- 
ment apparently, and possibly used as a coin ; also tiny beads 
of chalcedony, scarcely an eighth of an inch in diameter. 

"The body of the girl was in a peculiar position, having 
been seated on a kind of workbox of braided reeds, with a 
cover hinged on one side and shutting down it was fastened on 
the other. It was about eighteen inches long, fourteen wide, 
and eight deep, and contained a greater variety of articles than 
I ever found together in any grave of the aborigines. There 
were grouped together things childish, and things showing ap- 
proach to maturity. There were rude specimens of knitting, 
with places showing where stitches had been dropped; mites 
of spindles and implements for weaving; and braids of thread 
of irregular thickness, kept as if for sake of contrast with other 
larger ones and nicely wound with a finer and more even 
thread. There were skeins and spools of thread, the spools 
being composed of two splints placed across each other at right 
angles, and the thread wound in and out between them. There 
were strips of cloth, some wide, some narrow, and some of 



78 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



two and even three colors. There were pouches plain and var- 
iegated, of different sizes, and all woven or knit without a 
seam. There were needles of bone and of bronze ; a comb and 
a little bronze knife, and some other articles; a fan smaller 
than that of the mother, was also stored away in the box. 
There were several sections of the hollow bones of some bird, 
carefully stopped by wads of cotton, and containing pigments 
of various colors. With these I found a curious contrivance, 
made of the finest cotton, evidently used as a 'dob' for apply- 
ing the colors to the face. 

"By the side of these novel cosmetic boxes was a contri- 
vance for rubbing or grinding the pigments to the requisite fine- 
ness for use. It was a small oblong stone, with a cup-shaped 
hollow on the upper side, in which fits a little round stone ball, 
answering the purpose of a pestle. There was also a substi- 
tute for a mirror, composed of a piece of iron pyrites, resemb- 
ling the half of an egg, with the plain side highly polished. 
Among all these many curious things was a little crushed or- 
nament of gold, evidently intended to represent a butterfly, but 
so thin and delicate that it came to pieces and lost its form 
when we attempted to handle it. 

''There was also a netting instrument of hard wood, not 
unlike those now in use in making nets. 

"The envelopes of the girl were similar to those that en- 
shrouded her mother. Her hair was braided and plaited 
around the forehead, encircling which, also, was a cincture of 
white cloth, ornamented with little silver spangles ; a thin nar- 
row bracelet of the same metal still hung on the shrunken arm, 
and between her feet was the dried body of a parrot, doubtless 
her pet in life, brought perhaps from the distant Amazonian 
valleys. 

"There was nothing of special interest surrounding the 
body of the boy; but bound tightly around his forehead was 
his sling, finely braided with cotton threads. 

"The body of the infant, a girl, had been imbedded in the 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 79 



fleece of the alpaca, then wrapped in fine cotton cloth, and 
placed in a strongly braided sack of rushes, with handles or 
loops at each end for carrying it. The only article found 
with this body was a seashell containing pebbles, the orifice 
closed with a hard pitch-like substance. 

"Besides the bodies there were a number of utensils and 
other articles in the vault, among them half a dozen earthen 
jars, pans and pots of various sizes and ordinary form. One 
or two were still incrusted with the soot of the fires over which 
they had been used. Every one contained something, one 
being filled with peanuts, another with maize, etc. ; and there 
were some other articles, representing the religious notions 
of the occupants of the tomb." 

Not taking in consideration a few of the objects, for in- 
stance, the coin, the edibles, and the last mentioned vessels, no 
one, undoubtedly, will say, that the manifold objects in the 
family tomb described were set aside with the dead out of any 
religious motive, or perhaps for the purpose of making use of 
them in the other world. No one will think so even in spite 
of the fact that the North American Indians bury the hunting- 
apparatus of the deceased with his remains, believing that he 
will make use of them on the imaginary hunting-grounds of 
another world. The many singular objects will have been 
placed in that family-tomb in consequence of the congenial, 
generally observed custom of the Ancient Peruvians of en- 
tombing their deceased friends with the principal implements 
they had used in life to earn their daily bread, and with the 
favorite objects that had made life pleasant to them. It prob- 
ably seemed to them that death should not sever all relations 
with life and that the tools of labor and the objects of de- 
light would make rest in the tomb pleasanter. Thus they like- 
ly could die more easily, thus probably mourning lost its keen 
pang. In fact it can not be ascertained how long the deceased 
family had rested in their quiet tomb, when Mr. Squier dis- 
turbed their peace, whether already since the Pre-Incaic times, 



80 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



or since .the Incas had conquered the countries of the Chinchas, 
or only since the Spanish invasion. Nevertheless, one may 
accept with certainty that the mode of entombing had been in 
accordance with the Ancient Peruvian usage, that likewise all 
the objects found were of Ancient Peruvian manufacture. For 
not only was the tomb in Pachacamac, the principal sanctuary 
of the Ancient Peruvians, but it is also a well known fact that 
the Incas wisely observed the rule to proceed with forbearance 
with the native rights and home customs. The family tomb 
in Pachacamac, then, was a type of the Ancient Peruvian way 
of entombing, and enables us to form an opinion about their 
industry, their domestic labor, the occupations of their girls, the 
plays of their children, and, last but not least, about their fam- 
ily-life. The surviving friends had entombed the deceased 
family with great tenderness of feeling and had given the fam- 
ily relation a pleasing expression in the quiet vault. 

Very important ruins have also been found in North Peru, 
in the present province of Huari. We will give a brief de- 
scription of only one of them: The castle of Chavin Huantar, 
discovered by Mr. Raimondi. It can actually not be deter- 
mined whether the castle was a fort only, or whether it served 
as prison and sanctuary also. Two terraced structures, which 
are near a river, are fortifications, built according to an ad- 
vanced plan. An opening of less than two feet square leads 
into a labyrinth of subterranean passages, which cross one 
another at right angles and are about 6 feet high and 3 feet 
wide. Each of the very thick walls of this subterranean laby- 
rinth is traversed lengthwise by a kind of tunnels, a foot and a 
half square, some of which lead into rooms that are about 15 
feet long and half as wide. Beneath this labyrinth are other 
walls and passages and rooms, which — according to the opin- 
ion of the people — continue far below the river. At about 
the middle of the building, at the crossing of two long passages, 
a granite column rises, which has the shape of a three-cornered 
prism, with very capricious figures, such as big mouths con- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



81 




82 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



taining large canine teeth, and large eyes. Out of this castle was 
taken a right-angled granite block which is 6 feet one inch 
long, 2 feet 5 inches wide, and 6 inches thick. At present it 
is at the museum of Madrid. Although its figures are wearing 
off, it still shows artistic, symmetric, and delicate work. It has 
the fantastic figure of a man with three fingers who holds 
coiled up snakes in his hands, forming scepters, and who wears 
on his head an ornament, entangled with other snakes and dis- 
figured with mouths which contain large canine teeth. 

All the Ancient Peruvian tribes were acquainted with a 
hieroglyphic writing which they carved in stones and which 
consisted in images of human beings, in straight lines, cir- 
cles, and parallelograms. Although hieroglyphics were neg- 
lected at the time of the Incas, and although these rulers are 
said to have considered them as counteracting their purposes ; 
there are still many remnants found in the ruins of old Peru- 
vian temples. Here we conclude our journey through Ancient 
Peru. 

ORIGIN OF THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS. 

On this journey of investigation we learned to know more 
facts, and these facts induce us again to raise questions ; for the 
knowledge gained makes us more inquisitive. In view of the 
grandeur and the abundance of relics of Old Peruvian indus- 
try and architecture, we involuntarily exclaim with a Spanish 
antiquarian : "Who was that unwearied people that was able 
to haul immense masses of hard porphery many miles from the 
quarries, through valleys thousands of feet deep, over moun- 
tains and plains without leaving any trace; and that was able 
to accomplish such feats without knowing the use of iron tools 
and without having other domestic animals than the weak 
llama? Who was the people that after having piled up these 
rocks on the building-ground, hewed, polished and joined them 
together with the exactness of one skilled in mosaic work? 
Who was the people that created extensive artificial fields in 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 83 



the mountain-wilds, that erected large cities, and produced 
skillful works of clay, of stone, of copper, of silver, and of 
gold, and embroidery such as in our days scarcely can be 
found? Who was that people, apparently possessing the 
wealth of a Dives, the strength and energy of a Hercules, the 
diligence of bees, and the perseverance of ants?" Who were 
they and whence had they come? Who of our diligent men 
of research will solve these problems and give us satisfactory 
reply ? 

The fact will not have escaped the observation of the 
reader, that all the edifices which we have rudely described, 
whether in South, Central, or North Peru, had been erected in 
accordance with the same general way of building ; they were 
all terraced structures. It also will be remembered that the 
work of sculpture in the castle at Chavin Huantar in North 
Peru had some traits in common with the figures of the tem- 
ple near Tiahuanaco, south of lake Titicaca. These two pla- 
ces are about 900 miles apart and are, moreover, separated by 
dreadfully wild mountain ranges, so that very probably no in- 
tercourse existed between the inhabitants of those places. 
Other similarities in art and industry can easily be seen. Pon- 
dering on this, one naturally draws the conclusion that those 
kingdoms and tribes constituted one single people, a people of 
one blood and one origin. And are not the industry and activ- 
ity, the power and endurance of the Ancient Peruvians char- 
acteristics of the Japanese? 

To this we add the religious proof. The reader has al- 
ready learned that from all parts of Peru the pilgrims migrated 
to the national sanctuary Pachacamac, to bring offerings unto 
their god. This important custom is also a strong evidence for 
the belief that the Ancient Peruvian peoples and tribes be- 
longed together. At the beginning of their history, Pachaca- 
mac had been worshiped as the invisible god and the creator 
of heaven and earth. Pachacamac! — how could the people 
give such a name to their god? As naturally as we call God 



84 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



from his works "creator of the world." For the word "Pacha" 
means earth, perhaps also world, and "in the word 'camac' we 
have the Japanese 'kami' which means god. Kami is, indeed, 
an ancient appellative for god, and was common to the Mon- 
golian and Tartaric sections of the human family. The name 
Pachacamac, then, designates God as 'Earth-god,' World-crea- 
tor. Garcilasso, Velasco, and Ulloa harmonize in their reports, 
concerning the tradition of the Peruvians, that Pachacamac 
had been an invisible god, who had not been represented by 
figures and to whom no offerings had been brought." At the 
beginning of their Peruvian history, the people still fostered 
the concept of monotheism, irrespective of their having many 
inferior gods. For monotheism existed in Peru at that time, 
in spite of the fact that there were subordinate gods for all 
possible purposes, whom they represented figuratively and 
whom they worshiped. The tradition alluded to continues 
thus : "When men became disobedient to their creator and gave 
themselves up to passions, Pachacamac regretted that he had 
created them, and found himself obliged to punish them, 
wherefore he sent them the deluge. Out of the flood Wiraco- 
cha and his three sons saved themselves. Their descendants 
feared the wrath of god, and also recognized his benefits, 
wherefore they erected the great temple in the valley of Lurin 
for his service." But in the course of centuries the people 
lost that elevated concept of an invisible creator, lowered God 
Pachacamac to the inferior spheres of the other gods, repre- 
sented him also in figures, and worshiped him as an idol, — a 
process of decay which went on slowly and consequently con- 
tinued during a long period of time. 

The knowledge of one god had grown dim and dark, long 
before the Incas came to Peru. But when these introduced the 
religion of the sun without abolishing or even changing the 
worship of Pachacamac, when sun and moon were worshiped 
besides Pachacamac and the many inferior gods, when the peo- 
ple attended the sumptuous Inti- festivities and also continued 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



85 



journeying to the old venerable national sanctuary in the valley 
of Lurin ; then the obscure religious ideas of the Old Peru- 
vians became thoroughly confused. In their slow, but sure re- 
ligious decay the Ancient Peruvians also fell morally. Con- 
science grew weak, night overtook them, and they walked in 
darkness. Passions and vices, deeds of infamy, yea barbarism 
prevailed. Voluptuousness became the pre-eminent public pas- 
sion. The Chiriguanos were not the only ones with whom 
sodomy and cannibalism were at home. Numerous human sac- 
rifices were offered to the gods. The wife took her own life 
at the death of her husband in order to serve him in the other 
world. At the death of a person of high rank many relatives 
and servants had to sacrifice their own lives. Many tribes 
waged constant wars of revenge against one another. Licen- 
tious living debilitated the people, their passions ruined them. 
Their colossal structures testify to their energy and strength, 
they are witnesses of their national prosperity. They must 
have erected them previous to their religious decay, previous 
to their moral and social corruption. The Ancient Peruvians 
very probably had passed through an epoch of prosperity never 
reached by the Incas, long before these came into the country. 
But, notwithstanding, the latter became the lawgivers of the 
first, became their instructors in morals, became their reform- 
ers. Having established their authority, the Incas dictated 
severe laws against the carnal sins and human sacrifices of their 
new subjects. They were, indeed,- in such a high moral stand- 
ing that they felt sad and indignant at the social corruption 
of the Ancient Peruvians and that they were, at least partly, 
able to control the destructive powers of depravation and to 
redeem the people from total ruin. 

"Kami" in the name Pachacamac is a Japanese appellative 
for god, and in the voluptuousness and sodomy of the Ancient 
Peruvians Dr. Ebrard sees a characteristic of the social life of 
the Japanese, for "especially is it the Japanese people with 
whom every sort of carnal indulgence flourishes." To this we 



86 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



add some extracts of what Dr. E. says about the other divini- 
ties of Ancient Peru : "There was a god of thunder called kate- 
quil, chaquilla 'thunder,' or katuilla 'lightning.' His sister was 
the goddess of rain. Her name is lost, but a song of mythol- 
ogy says that her wild brother broke her urn with a stroke of 
lightning so that the rain poured out. We know the name of 
the goddess since our study of the Japanese mythology. It is 
the Japanese Tensiodaisin in company with her wild brother 

The Ancient Peruvians believed in thunder-bolts 

that had fallen from heaven and were thought to bring about 
charms of love (similarly the aerolites were reverenced in 
Japan). Twins passed for sons of lightning and he to whom 
such were born, brought an offering of thanksgiving to the god 
of thunder. Witchcraft which the Incas later on prohibited, 
but which, nevertheless, was practiced by the people, was essen- 
tial to the Ancient Peruvian religion. Malay and Japanic- 
Mongolian worship of spirits was intermingled in it. There 
was a kind of superior priest of the oracle, who spoke with the 
gods. He was titled wakapvillac, which word is partly of 
Malay and partly of Old Peruvian construction, for waka is 
the Malay word for 'god' and villa is an Old Peruvian word 
meaning 'to speak,' so that wakapvillac means 'speaker to 
god.' Of the same origin is the name for the conjuror of the 
dead, called malquipvillac, composed of the Malay word ma>- 
qui, i. e. 'dead' and villa, i. e. 'to speak.' The last one was 
also designated by the word ajatacac which must be Japanese." 
That we find Malay words intermixed with Japanese, is very 
natural, because the Aborigines of Peru were Malays, as we 
shall learn later on. 

ANCIENT PRAYER TO THE GODDESS OF RAIN. 

"Beautiful princess, thy brother thy urn now smashes ; 
From the stroke it thunders, lightens, and flashes. 
But, thou princess, pouring out thy water, rainest 
And at times hail and snow thou sendest. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 87 



Pacharurek — Pachacamac — Wiracocha 
Hath ordained thee to that office." 

The Ancient Peruvians were, therefore, descendants of 
Japanese immigrants. These had, like the Chinese Incas, who 
arrived later, not navigated from Japan directly to Peru ; they 
entered the continent from the north, as the traces of their 
wanderings show. For the Chibchas on the banks of the river 
Magdalene in the northwest of South America also were of 
Japanese origin, as we shall learn later in the chapter treating 
of that people. Dr. Ebrard recovers traces of Japanese civi- 
lization also in Central and even in North America, and says 
concerning those wanderings, that the Japanese came to Amer- 
ica "either by coast navigation, or, what is much more proba- 
ble, by following the Koorile Islands as far as Kamchatka and 
then the Aleutian Islands to Alaska, whence they continued 
journeying by land." This may appear incredible to some of 
our readers, but is not at all improbable to him who is familiar 
with the very lengthy maritime journeyings from island to 
island and the wanderings of the prehistoric races. We shall 
have to refer to some of this navigation when we shall treat 
on the migrations of the Malay race. Since the Ancient Pe- 
ruvians were far advanced in some branches of enterprise and 
art, Dr. Ebrard supposes that their forefathers cannot have 
left their native country before the year 209 B. C. For in 
that year, a large number of Chinese came from China to 
Japan under the leadership of Zikofukus, and brought skillful- 
ness and arts with them; while Japan seemed to have been 
void of art and industry before that time. "The arrival of 
Japanese in America probably took place 100 B. C." They 
established themselves in Central America, whence their de- 
scendants were driven farther south by other races coming 
from the north. Peru they may have reached at the beginning 
of the Christian era, about the year 100 A. D. 

Even at that early time America was inhabited ; the Jap- 



83 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



anese immigrants found a population in Peru at their arrival. 
The original inhabitants of Peru lived miserable lives. They 
were naked and lived on trees, wherefore the new immigrants 
gave them the nickname monkey. We shall treat on the abo- 
rigines particularly in a subsequent period. The newcomers 
began to develop a wonderful activity and gave to Peru a new 
aspect in the course of more than a thousand years. In the 
beginning of their Peruvian history they must have constituted 
one nation under one single government ; for tradition reports 
that 80 kings succeeded one another in the government. Dur- 
ing the political union Ancient Peru reached that greatness 
and high development of which the antiquities we learned to 
know are the remnants. Then the people worshiped Pacha- 
camac as the God high above all other gods, as the invisible 
creator of the world. They prospered, became wealthy; but 
undoubtedly, their great prosperity became their snare. They 
fell into religious decay characterized by horrifying human 
sacrifices, and into moral corruption. They separated into the 
different kingdoms and tribes which the Incas found. Degra- 
dation and corruption is the process of unbiblical mankind 
everywhere. 

From Ancient Peru kindred tribes or hordes wandered in- 
to all directions to satisfy the desire of wandering. Those who 
settled in the north, founded the kingdom of the Shyris with 
Quito as capital. Those who wandered towards the rising of 
the sun, following the courses of rivers, grew savage in Bra- 
zil's tropical forests. Those who directed their faces towards 
the southeast, populated the very extensive table-lands of Bo- 
livia, Tucuman, and Paraguay. And finally, roving companies 
are said to have crossed the southern Andes, to have roamed 
southward through Chile and to have mixed with the Arau- 
canians in the south of the country. We will next trace these 
different wanderings. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 89 



B) DESCENDANTS OF THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS. 

1. THE SHYRI-KINGDOM. 

Already in the history of the Incas, did we meet with the 
kingdom of the Shyris whose capital was Quito. This kingdom 
occupied the territory of the present Republic of Ecuador and 
was likewise established on the table-lands of the Andes, hav- 
ing the Old Peruvians in the south and the Chibchas in the 
north ; it was related to both. They belonged to the Japanic- 
Mongolian immigrants, as we learn from their organization and 
civilization. For, there also existed a firmly organized nobil- 
ity with a king at the head. The people dedicated themselves 
to agriculture and lived together in towns and villages. 

At the time of the Inca conquests the kingdom of the 
Shyriites stood on an equal footing of development with the 
Ancient Peruvian kingdoms. Then the fourteenth Shyri, i. e. 
king, the fourteenth probably of the then ruling dynasty, had 
the reins of government in his hands in Quito. One may es- 
timate his strength from the fact that Inca Tupac Yupanki led 
an army of 40,000 warriors against him and that these were 
able to conquer but two provinces. The following Inca, 
Huayna Capac, had to wage a war of five years against the last 
Shyri, called Cacha, before he was able to unite that ancient 
kingdom with his empire. Also the circumstance, that the vic- 
torious Inca established his residence at Quito for 38 years, 
while all his predecessors, indeed, had resided at Cuzco 
since more than two hundred years, testifies to the importance 
and the progress of the Shyri-kingdom. 

2. AIMARES IN BRAZIL. 

Turning now away from the table-lands of the Andes and 
directing our attention to the interior of the continent, we meet 
the savage tribes of the Botokudes north of the mighty Ama- 
zon river. They are a people that grew wild. They neither 



90 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



till the soil nor make clothing. They walk about naked, kill 
men to drink their blood, boil their flesh and eat it. Mr. Chu- 
di judges from the yellowish complexion and oblique eyes of 
these cannibals that they are of Mongolian origin and says : 
"I have seen Chinese whom at the first sight, I would have 
taken for Botokudes, and again I observed a few Botokudes 
who wore the perfect type of the Chinese." To this we must 




BOTOKUDE 



add that "Botokudes" is a Portuguese word which signifies peg- 
people and which was given to them by the Portuguese, because 
they wear pegs or plugs in ears and lips. They call themselves 
Aimares or also Ensheregmungs. Do complexion and eyes, 
does the whole physical constitution, indicate the Mongolian 
origin, their name tells right out that they descended from the 
Japanese Aimares of Ancient Peru. — Kindred to the Botoku- 
des are the Guarani-Indians of Brazil, because these, like those, 
are of a light yellowish complexion and have oblique eyes. 

But how could tribes, kindred to the far advanced An- 
cient Peruvians whose works we have admired, lose them- 
selves in the forests of tropical Brazil and there grow savage 
totally? The reader will recollect the lawless tribes, among 
them the Chiriguanos, who lived in Old Peru beside the organ- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 91 



ized kingdoms. They were wild cannibals without laws and 
virtues, and certainly distinguished themselves from the semi- 
cultured Japanese. Dr. Ebrard's opinion, "that degraded 
Mongolian-Tartaric tribes immigrated from Manchooria, the 
islands of Yezo, Tarakai, and the Kuriles with the more ad- 
vanced Japanese into America" must be correct. "And pre- 
eminently just such Ugrotartaric tribes will have had the incli- 
nation to rovings and wanderings." Then the reader who con- 
sults the map of the Inca Empire on page 32, will find that 
the mighty Amazon river rises in the Peruvian Andes and that 
the sources of some of its tributaries lie north of Lake Titicaca, 
namely in the territory of the ancient Aimares. In these re- 
gions those uncultured roving hordes must have started and, 
following the courses of the mountain-streams and the left 
bank of the mighty Amazon, must have reached Brazil's trop- 
ical forest north of that majestic stream. In these journey- 
ings the tropical climate supplied them with an abundance of 
fruit and game. Brazil's tropical forests yield the products 
of the torrid zone very abundantly; clothing and firm dwell- 
ings are not necessities. There those rude wanderers did not 
accustom themselves to agriculture and cattle raising. Hunt- 
ing game, protecting themselves against wild animals, and liv- 
ing under the powerful influences of a tropical forest, they lost 
sight of the occupations of their countrymen and stripped oft 
the last traces of an orderly life they might have brought from 
Peru. "The Botokudes and Guaranis offer us another striking 
incident of bewildering, i. e. of that sinking which, instead of 
the illusive theories of evolution, everywhere presents itself 
to our observation in actual life." (Ebrard.) 

Finally, vice still offers another proof for the Mongolian 
origin of those savage tribes. In Ancient Peru we found the 
vice of voluptuous living generally prevailing. And of the 
mentioned tribes of Brazil it is said that not only does this 
vice exist there shamefully, but also the custom that certain 
men, principally sorcerors, walk about in women's clothing, 



92 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



practicing pederasty. This contemptible practice is custom- 
ary among some Mongolian peoples, especially among the 
Japanese. One must not think that voluptuous living is com- 
mon to all natives and that one can, therefore, not make 
use of it as a characteristic to prove the similarity of nations 
and tribes. With the original Malay inhabitants of South 
America, e. g. with the Araucanians of Chile and others, we 
shall not find such a demoralization, but on the contrary a high 
degree of sexual purity. Public vices and virtues are national 
traits that prove the kinship of nations and tribes. 

3. MANDCHUSIKUANS, JURUKARIANS, AND OTHERS. 

Did wandering tribes of the Ancient Peruvians populate 
Central Brazil, other tribes settled down on the table-lands of 
Bolivia and Paraguay and still others forced their way even 
as far as the banks of the river Parana. In the following we 
will show how Dr. Ebrard deduces the Japanic-Mongolian 
origin of those tribes from the names of their divinities, from 
their traditions and customs. 

In Paraguay live the Mandchusikuans, whose very name 
reminds of the Manchoorians, who are subjects of the Chinese 
crown, neighbors of, and related to, the Japanese. In one 
temple they worshiped three gods: Urago Sorisu (whom they 
also called Omegua Turegui), Ura Sana, and Ura Po. They 
brought them offerings consisting of food and drink. In the 
word Omegua the syllables Ome are evidently the words amu 
a ma, "father," "mother," which is common to the Mongolian 
languages. Ura is an appellative for god, which we find 
among the other savage tribes of the Aimares in the expres- 
sions juru, guru, taru and tin, and which seems to bear a rela- 
tion to the word Taara of the Ugrofins. Previous to their con- 
version to Christianity the Fins called their supreme divinity 
Taara. The Fins were a branch of the Ugro family that had 
their ancient abodes between the river Volga and' the Aral sea 
and whose supreme god must have been the same Taara. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 93 



Eastward from the Ugros extended the Tartaric nations as far 
as Eastern Asia, where they were mixed with the Mongolians. 
The South American descendants of these Ugro Tartars kept 
their name for god in the different forms taru, juru, ura in use. 

Among the Jurukarians of Bolivia we find the name taru 
in the form of tiri. With this name traditions are connected 
which plainly remind one of the fall of man, of the deluge, and 
of the tower of Babylon related in Genesis. Tiri was "Lord 
of the entire nature." This presupposes the idea that he had 
in bygone ages been thought of as the creator of the world. 
Being all alone and longing for a friend, he created the first 
man out of the nail of his big toe and called him Karu. Karu 
begot children with a hocco-bird. But his son died — remi- 
niscence of old — and he himself against the command of Tiri, 
ate a fruit from a tree, a kind of almond, grown on his son's 
grave. Tiri had told him his son would be called back to life, 
he should be careful not to eat from that tree. When he nev- 
ertheless ate Tiri told him: Thou hast been disobedient ; for 
punishment thou and all men shall be mortals and ye shall 
labor and be distressed. At Tiri's command Karu then ate a 
duck, whereupon he vomited and threw up all classes of birds. 
A spirit, called Sararuma or also Aima-sunne, then caused a 
world-wide conflagration. The traditions of some tribes have 
substituted a great fire for the deluge of the Bible. One single 
man saved his life in a cave and at times held out a twig which 
was singed at first, but remained uninjured by and by. Out of 
the cave now came forth the various nations of the earth — evi- 
dently in the person of this one man, their progenitor, the No- 
ah of the Bible — namely the Mansinnos, Solorotus, Quitchuas, 
Chiriguanos and others. These were the tribes known to the 
Jurukarians. But as one man came out of the cave, who wanted 
to predominate over all, Tiri closed the entrance, commanded 
all men to separate and to people the whole earth, and sowed 
seed of discontentment amongst them. In consequence of this 
they armed themselves with arrows, which fell down from the 



94 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



sun. The Jurukarians claim to have derived from the Man- 
sinnos. The Quitchua or Ketchua tongue, which later became 
the national language of the empire of the Incas, had long been 
used in Bolivia and Peru when the Incas arrived. 

The Abipones on the banks of the river Parana in Para- 
guay worship a god of storm whom they call Pilla. The Arau- 
canians in Chile designate god, the supreme spirit, with the 
same word, only suffixing the letter n. The Pillan of the 
Araucanians, as we shall see, dwells in a smoking volcano of 
Chile. Pilla seems to have derived from the Old Peruvian 
word villa which means "to speak." Consequently, the Abi- 
pones took the roaring of the storm, the Araucanians the erup- 
tion of the volcano, for the "utterances of god." Did the Abi- 
pones wander from Peru as far as the river Parana, other Tar- 
taric-Mongolian hordes crossed the Andes, roamed through 
Chile and made their abodes with their god Pilla among the 
Araucanians. The latter have still the word Pilla as appella- 
tive ; Gucn-Pillan "Celestial Spirit" is with them the special 
Pillan, i. e. Spirit, God, who created all things. We shall also 
find Peruvian customs among the Araucanians. 

Among the Abipones, as also among some tribes along the 
Amazon river, one meets with the very rare custom that the 
man acts as though he too were sick, during the time his wife is 
confined. He lies down, and at the close goes through a cere- 
mony of purification. But this is an Asiatic usage. In anti- 
quity it was found among the Tibarenes in Armenia and is still 
customary among the Miaos in China. — Figures of sculpture 
which in Brazil have occasionally been found cut in rocks and 
which represent the sun and moon, reptiles and other monsters, 
have striking similarities with analogous sculptures in Siberia. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



95 



C) THE CHIBCHAS. 
ioo to 1538 A. D. 

The northwest of South America is occupied by the repub- 
lic of Colombia, which country formerly bore the name of 
New Granada. In the southern section of this country the 
Andes mountains divide into two ranges running northward. 
From the eastern range extensive table-lands, called llanos, 
slope down towards the lowlands of Venezuela, while the west- 
ern range follows the coast of the Pacific and has its prolonga- 
tion in the mountains of Panama. Between both ranges in 
Colombia an extensive table-land lies, which is drained in its 
entire length from south to north by the river Magdalena which 
receives the Cauca from the west and empties into the Carib- 
bean Sea. In the central section of the table-land, between the 
Magdalena and the eastern range the organized kingdom of 
the Chibchas was established. In the year 1538 it was dis- 
covered and conquered by a Spanish expedition, headed by 
Jimenez de Quezada, which had started from the Caribbean 
Sea and had pressed their way through the native forests for 
one whole year. Having encountered innumerable hardships, 
many Spaniards had succumbed on that memorable campaign 
and those who remained were in a starving condition when one 
day they spied green fields, whereby their sunken courage was 
revived. The natives raised corn, potatoes, and cotton. From 
the last they fabricated goods for clothing which they dyed. 
Those natives were the Chibchas. They formed no part of the 
kingdom of Quito, had lived there for ages, and ranked second 
in the Pre-European civilization of South America, being sur- 
passed only by the Peruvians. The kingdom comprised an 
area of 5400 square miles, being little more than half the size 
of the state of New Hampshire; but it had a population of 
1,200,000 persons, and therefore more than twice the number 
of New Hampshire's inhabitants. They averaged 222 persons 
to the square mile, while the present republic of Colombia has 



96 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



only §y 2 persons on a square mile. While in the east the Chib- 
chas were protected by the mountain range against the wild 
hordes of the llanos, in the north the Laches, Agataes, and 
Guanes had their abodes, and in the west along the Magdalena 
the Musos, Colimas, and Panches were established. These 
last named tribes, especially the Panches, belonged to a race 
entirely distinct from the Chibchas, which circumstance is 
proven by the fact that they were their irreconcilable enemies. 
They belonged to the Caribbean race, wore no dresses, lived 
mainly from robbery, and disturbed the navigation on the 
Magdalena even yet one hundred years after the conquests of 
the Spaniards. 

The government of the Chibchas was divided between two 
equally powerful sovereigns — the Zipa who resided in the cap- 
ital Muqueta (now Funza) and the Zaque who had his resi- 
dence in Tunja. Zipa and Zaque are no proper names, but 
titles for sovereigns, as king, prince etc. The nephew of 
the sovereign, i. e. the son of his sister, was heir to the 
crown. The prince made his preparations for the duties he 
was to take upon himself in a place expressly designated for 
that purpose. There existed among the Chibchas a numerous 
nobility whose members held ranks and offices very much like 
those of the curacas of the Ancient Peruvians. The wealthiest 
and most eminent nobles were distinguished by the honored 
title of Ubzaque which is equal to the English duke, or also by 
that of Guiquae which is similar to the English baron or earl. 
The four mightiest Ubzaques constituted the electorial princes 
who elected and inaugurated the heir to the crown. All nobles 
were highly esteemed by their respective subjects and exer- 
cised equal rights in the execution of laws and regulations. 

Besides the civil authority, a high priest exerted an exten- 
sive influence and claimed an indisputable authority in the do- 
minion of the Zaque. He resided in the main temple in Sua- 
moz (now Sagomoso), in the venerable district of Iraca. He 
held the office of a guardian of religious rights, preserved the 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 97 



traditions, and watched ove'r the exercising of religious pre- 
cepts. In the territory of the Zipa there was no religious au- 
thority apart from the civil ; at the time of the Spanish inva- 
sion both appear to have vested in one supreme sovereign. 

When the Spanish expedition under Quezada was in camp 
before Suamoz where the highpriest lived, two soldiers were 
tempted in the darkness of the night to enter the temple through 
a window which they forced open. In the interior they lit a 
torch which they had in readiness and in the reflected rays of 
their light they saw the bright splendor of gold with which the 
temple was decorated. The highpriest, not being inclined to flee 
or to abandon the sanctuary, stepped forth out of his apartment 
in his priestly attire, and, facing the intruders in his imposing 
appearance, filled them with awe. Did it happen through the 
carelessness of the Spaniards, as many historians assert, or did 
it occur through the just indignation of the priest, who saw 
the sanctuary exposed to profanity and sacrilege and could not 
defend it, as the Chibchas say ; the temple was set on fire, the 
highpriest perished in the flames, and with him "the tradition 
of a people, the history of a nation, was lost to the world." 

The Chibchas called the creator Chiminigagua; but the 
idea of an invisible creator of the world had been lost before 
the Spanish conquest. Chibchacum was the divine guardian of 
the Chibchas, Mensatao was the god of the dyers of clothing, 
Chaquen the protector of crops. It seems that the god of their 
drinking-bouts and debaucheries was Fomagata, which was 
similar to the Bacchus of the Romans and was even adored as 
an evil spirit or devil. The religious running with its shame- 
less evil practices and other ceremonies were dedicated to his 
services and will be described later on. Dr. Ebrard reports 
that Fomagata did originally not belong to the Chibchas deities, 
but had been imported from Central America and introduced 
among the Chibchas. The latter held concerning this deify . 
that in ancient times he had passed through the air as a fiery 
spirit, had changed men into animals, had been an odious spirit, 
•7 



98 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and had been dethroned by Bochika. About Bochika, also 
called Neuqueteva, tradition says tbat he had come from a far- 
away country, made laws for the people, taught them how to 
weave, to cultivate the soil, and to honor the gods. Bochika had 
staid with them a thousand years, had given them doctrines 
and instructions which they should guard as a treasure, and had 
finally disappeared towards the rising of the sun. — The rain- 
bow was to the Chibchas the sign of peace between heaven and 
earth. At their festivals two men carried a net about as the 
emblem of death, whereby the living should be reminded of the 
uncertainly of life and the more fortunate of the end of all 
human glory. 

Concerning the sayings about Bochika, it becomes evident 
that he was a religious instructor, a reformer and benefactor, 
who came into the country long, long ago. He undoubtedly 
had come with a large number of immigrants whose leader he 
may have been. Bochika and his company found inhabitants 
in the country, who could neither weave nor till the soil. They 
belonged to the aborigines of South America whom we shall 
find scattered all over the continent. Bochika and his immi- 
grants must be classified as contemporaries of the Japanese who 
settled down in Peru 100 A. D. Colombia, then, had two im- 
migrations before the Spaniards, the Japanese Chibchas and 
the Aborigines. 

The organization of the Chibchas reminds of Ancient Pe- 
ru and, at the same time, of Japan. The Ubzaques who were 
quite independent, remind of the Old Peruvian Curacas. The 
landed properties were private possessions and were inherited 
by the children, as in the Old Peruvian kingdoms, not as in 
the communistic empire of the Incas. The hereditary feudal 
nobility reminds of the Daimios of Japan. 

In regard to the founding of their kingdom the Chibchas 
had the saying that Hunkawha had brought them into the coun- 
try, had established the kingdom, built the city of Tunja which 
originally was called Hunka, had conquered neighboring dis- 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 99 



tricts, governed 250 years, and had 200 wives. Since Japan's 
oldest name was Hwa, we have a Japanese word in Hunkawha. 

In consequence of the preceding and also of the Chibchas 
language which resembles the Japanese, we are justified to 
take the Chibchas for a contingent of the Japanese-Mongolian 
immigration to which also the Ancient Peruvian kingdoms 
owed their existence. In the asylum of that table-land, pro- 
tected against the hordes of the eastern llanos, they had main- 
tained their existence, their organization and, to some extent, 
their customs since 100 A. D., almost 1500 years, when the 
Spaniards found them. As is known, the Spaniards, unfor- 
tunately, did not undertake their expeditions for the noble 
humanitarian purpose to seek the welfare of new discovered 
humanity, nor for the scientific purpose of transmitting the his- 
tories of antique kingdoms to posterity ; but they were rather 
actuated by the cold-blooded desire after gold which suppressed 
every noble aspiration. Only the latest history of the Chibchas 
was recorded. For lack of space we shall refer to a few cus- 
toms only to characterize this interesting people. 

THE CEREMONY OF FASTING AND CROWNING. 

To prepare for the government the crown prince who was 
the nephew of the king, had to fast six years in a cave desig- 
nated for that purpose. During this time he was not allowed 
to associate with females, had to abstain from the use of meat, 
of salt, of red pepper, or was he permitted to look at the sun. 
Only at night time could he leave the cave to behold the moon 
and the stars, but had to retire before the sun could shine on 
him. The six years' course having ended the prince under- 
went the ceremony of crowning. This was celebrated at lake 
Guatavita which was regarded as sacred. Here he brought of- 
ferings to the devil who was god and lord of the Chibchas. 
On the shores of the lake they decorated and embellished a 
large raft profusely and placed four large coal-pans on it, on 
which they threw much moque, the incense of the natives, tur- 



100 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



pentine, and various fragrant plants. The shores of the lake 
were occupied by men and women who had decorated them- 
selves with plumes and crowns, studded with gold, for the fes- 
tival. As soon as the incense in the pans blazed up, they lit 
bonfires on the shores which emitted so much smoke, that the 
sunlight was dimmed. In the meantime they stripped the hered- 
itary prince of his clothes, smeared him over with a sticky clay, 
and bestrewed him with gold-dust so abundantly that he was 
completely covered with this metal. Thus they led him on the 
raft on which he remained standing; at his feet they amassed 
precious stones and more gold to bring these as an offering to 
Fomagata, the devil. Look at him on the raf t ! Is he not the 
golden man, i. e. el dorado ? There the term El Dorado came 
into existence. And the Chibchas prince covered with gold- 
dust is the only El Dorado that ever existed. With him four of 
the most prominent Ubzaques who were the electoral princes, 
adorned with plumes, golden crowns, bracelets, and earrings, 
and carrying their offerings, entered the raft. As soon as the 
raft was pushed from the shore, all instruments, cornets, trum- 
pets, drums, and so forth resounded and such loud cheering 
was raised that hills and valleys re-echoed. These acclama- 
tions continued, till the raft had arrived at the middle of the 
lake, when the signal for silence was given with a flag. El do- 
rado prince then brought his offerings by throwing all the gold 
and precious stones that Avere at his feet into the lake. There- 
upon the Ubzaques, accompanying him, did the same. Next 
all five plunged into the water to wash the gold-dust and the 
clay off in the holy lake. The offerings having been completed 
the flag still fluttering in the breeze, was lowered. While now 
the raft was rowed back to the shore, the rejoicings and in- 
struments resounded anew and the lively music soon incited to 
merry dances, dances that were executed in very large circles. 
After such ceremonies the people received the crowned ruler 
in full festive joy and recognized him as their lord and sover- 
eign. 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 101 



The name "El Dorado" that is known the world over and 
has become a snare to many, owes its origin to this ceremony. 
'El dorado' are the Spanish words for k the golden one.' As 
regards the origin and circulation of this name it is reported 
that Sebastian de Belalcazar, the conqueror of Quito, met, on 
his expedition in Ecuador, an Indian who told the gold-seeking 
Spaniards how in his country the crown prince was covered 
with gold at the ceremony of crowning, how everything was 
made golden and many festivals were celebrated. Sebastian, 
filled with surprise, exclaimed : "Up ! let us look for El Dora- 
do !" He came to the country of the Chibchas, founded some 
towns ; but he did not find El Dorado. The name of El Dorado 
spread over the West Indian islands, came to Spain and all the 
European countries, without the understanding of its true sig- 
nification. Later it was believed the expression to mean "a 
land of gold in South America with golden mountains." The 
word for a long time worked as a charm and in the search of 
El Dorado many lives were lost, as we shall learn. 

The religious custom of running. This was a popular 
religious custom of the Chibchas, which had been prescribed 
by inviolable laws and observed since immemorial times. It 
consisted in running around a large surface of land so that the 
run was more than fifty miles from start to finish. The corners 
of the territory were five lakes lying far apart and considered 
sacred. On their shores buildings and altars were erected for 
the purpose of worship. Between the lakes, principally on ele- 
vations, were smaller places of worship which also served as 
indications of the course to be pursued. The most prominent 
place of worship was lake Guatavita where the princes were 
crowned ; the second was lake Guasca. All the five lakes were 
altars where the people sacrificed their gold and precious stones 
by casting them into the water. The more valuable sacrifices 
the people delivered to the watery element, the dearer those 
singular altars became to them. Immeasurable treasures the 



102 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Chibchas must have deposited in the sacred lakes in the course 
of their long history. 

The running around the territory the inhabitants of the 
Ubaque valley began, together with the people of the great 
plain of Bogata, at lake Ubaque, while the people of Guatavita 
and vicinity and the subjects of the Zaque of Tunja began to 
run at the great lake Guatavita. It seems they performed the 
running in opposite directions, for the mountains and high ele- 
vations were covered with enormous masses of people when the 
ones met with the others. In definite stations crowns were 
deposited as prizes for those who arrived there first. The vic- 
tor gained the honor to pass for the most holy among the 
competitors. As soon, then, as the runners saw a lake or a 
hill in whose sanctuary a crown awaited the victor, they exerted 
all their strength, pursuing their course with the greatest speed, 
to gain the crown. In the combats and wars that might occur 
in the ensuing year, those troops who had a prize winner 
amongst them, usually won the victory. Therefore, the Chib- 
chas had reasons enough why every one exerted all his strength 
to reach the sanctuary first. Many collapsed on the way from 
exertion, others died afterwards from the consequences. Such 
dead and also those who succombed at the debaucheries of the 
following nights, were entombed in the caverns of the moun- 
tains and were reverenced as martyrs, for it was believed that 
Fomagata had carried their souls away. Images, gold, and 
costly blankets were dedicated to them. The festival in which 
various exercises alternated continued twenty days and was 
celebrated for religious purposes. Had it in former times 
borne a purer aspect? In later years very low practices had 
become predominant and vice itself was practiced as a relig- 
ious action. Between the principal sanctuaries, lakes Guata- 
vita and Ubaque, public establishments were kept in which 
much chicha (cider) was deposited for the nightly debaucher- 
ies. Then unspeakable deeds of infamy were committed. At 
dances and wild music the vices of Sodom and Gomorrah were 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



103 



practiced and more shameless than in those cities of old; for 
with the Chibchas vice was religious. He who indulged most 
was most acceptable and he who collapsed was the most holy. 
What a deviltry in such a perversion ! 

Fresle who was born in Bogata, declared that the devil was 
the teacher of the Chibchas in their religious ceremonies and 
ways and that they served him as his followers, that he had 
erected his dominion amongst them, and that they served him 
consciously in their festivals, erected him altars, and honored 
him as their god. That the Chibchas held the greatest de- 
bauchee for the holiest, reminds of the Semitic worship of 
Baal and Astarde in which sensuality was taken for a religious 
passion and sin for a god pleasing deed. Into such abnormal 
errors human conscience could fall only through the influence 
and training of the evil seducer. Not that the Chibchas were 
derived from the Semites ; their Japanese origin has been dem- 
onstrated. Not that they served Baal ; their Bacchus was Fo- 
magata. This god whose service may formerly have been ren- 
dered morally pure, had been degraded to an evil spirit, to a 
devil. The African tribes of the Caribbeans, who were addict- 
ed to an infamous immorality and who, e. g. the Panches, were 
the western neighbors of the Chibchas will have brought this 
infamy among the latter. These, however, susceptible to all 
kinds of voluptuous living, introduced it into the worship of 
Fomagata, i. e. the devil. Thus the adoration of the devil, to 
whom it does not matter whether he is called Beelzebub, or 
Baal, or Fomagata, was established in the religious ceremonies, 
the sacrifices, and the infamous debaucheries of the Chibchas. 
What the devil had accomplished in antiquity in eastern Asia, 
namely to have men consider voluptuousness, the sins of Sod- 
om, god-pleasing deeds, that he also brought about in the north- 
west of South America. Here, however, he carried perversive- 
ness still a step further, for the devil made himself the god of 
a nation and was adored by the people as god. 

Let us now go back to the rural running. In the latter 



104 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



days when it was known that all the people had concluded 
the run, the ubzaques, superiors, and nobles of the people met 
at lake Guatavita, where wild revelries were continued still 
three days longer. Much moque and turpentine were still 
burned day and night. On the last feast-day all the gold and 
jewels the people had brought for the purpose of offering, were 
carried on large, richly decorated rafts. While now a grand 
kind of music was made by the trumpeters, drummers, and 
pipers in which the people on the shores joined with rejoicings 
and while the bonfires were lighted, filling the sky with smoke 
and cinder; the rafts were rowed to the middle of the lake, 
where the last offerings were brought to the devil, by throwing 
the precious metals into the deep. With this act the festival 
of the rural running ended and everybody went home. 

At the time of Fresle the well founded report constantly 
circulated that there was much gold in all the five lakes and that 
lake Guatavita held a large treasure. Basing his hopes upon 
such rumors Anton de Sepulveda made a contract with Philip 
III., king of Spain, to drain lake Guatavita. Having completed 
the first drainage canal, he could pick up $12,000 worth of gold 
from the shores that were laid dry. Further attempts to re- 
gain gold from this lake were in vain, as it is very deep and its 
bottom muddy. Different Spaniards tried to raise the treas- 
ures hidden in lakes Ubaque and Guasca, but without any re- 
sult. — According to rumor there were two gold alligators liv- 
ing and rich treasures of precious metals and jewels hidden in 
lake Teusaca. Besides others, our reporter, Sr. Fresle, also 
coveted those treasures and also desired to catch a gold alliga- 
tor. Fie took a native who was at home at the lake into his 
service to be his guide. Having traveled so far that they could 
see the water in the distance, the Indian from superstitious 
reverence fell headlong to the ground. Fresle could neith- 
er lift him up nor make him utter a single word. He had 
to leave him lie and to return home without having accom- 
plished anything. ' 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



105 



The war between Bogata and Guaiavita serves to give 
more information about conditions of the kingdom of the Chib- 
chas and leads their history up to the Spanish invasion. The 
marshal of one of the last sovereigns of Guatavita was called 
Bogata. After this man the capital of present Colombia was 
named. At the time when Marshal Bogata was in power it hap- 
pened that the inhabitants of the northern section of the king- 
dom rebelled against their sovereign, the lord of Guatavita. 
They denied him obedience and payment of taxes, indeed all 
that was due him, and took up arms against him. When the 
king obtained notice of these occurrences and saw the necessity 
of quenching the fire before it might break out in bright flames, 
causing much harm ; he sent his quemes, i. e. messengers, with 
two golden crowns, the visible signs of command, to Bogata 
with the message that as soon as he saw the crowns, he should 
unite all his warriors to attack the rebels with a strong force 
and to prosecute the war, until he had defeated the enemies and 
brought them back to obedience. Bogata organized an army 
of 30,000 men, crossed the mountains, and entered the valleys 
and plains of the rebels. Several engagements took place, in 
which many were killed on both sides. As the king constantly 
supplied the army with new troops, keeping it always ready for 
action, the marshal who pushed the war with determination 
was able to subdue the rebels and levy the taxes that were due 
his lord. He returned home victoriously and laden with taxes 
and rich spoils. 

At his return Bogata sent the large amount of taxes and a 
part of the spoils to his lord and laid the honor of victory down 
at his feet. Then the captains and soldiers of his army desired 
to arrange feasts to celebrate Bogata's victories in the accus- 
tomed revelries. On Bogata's estate they prepared a very 1 
prominent feast. Having become intoxicated they began to 
call out the name of their marshal, to praise his heroic deeds, 
and to proclaim him their sovereign. They told him that by 
right he ought to be their only lord, that it would be easy for 



106 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



them to put him on the throne and to keep him in power; all 
would obey him. King Guatavita was not a man of warlike 
disposition, but rather delighted in a life of luxury and self- 
contentment. But when he became aware of those proceed- 
ings, he surrounded his person with a bodyguard of 2000 
men. He then sent his quemes to Bogata with the message 
to appear at the court within three days. Bogata excused him- 
self with the reply that he had only lately paid attention to the 
sovereign, presented the messengers with rich gifts, and dis- 
missed them with kind words. Then without delay the sly 
marshal called a military council in which he secretly ordered 
his officers to get the army ready to march. This was done 
without hesitation. The king highly disturbed by the declin- 
ing answer of his marshal, sent two other messengers to him. 
Bogata immediately caused them to return to tell their lord 
that he would see him next day. Thereupon he ordered his 
captains to divide the army that now was 40,000 men strong, 
in two equally strong divisions. He sent one division ahead 
to bid the king good day ; but the latter, having been informed 
about the approaching danger, had fled. With the other divi- 
sion Bogata visited the surrounding towns and country dis- 
tricts for the purpose of gaining the people over to him. These 
willingly promised him obedience, because his name sounded 
more agreeable to them and promised them more liberty than 
that of the king. 

The fugitive sovereign soon thought of revenge. There 
still remained to him the possibility to gather a considerable 
military force. For to him still belonged all the territory that 
extended over a distance of a three days' journey and the 
mountainous districts of the Chios and their valleys were at 
that time densely populated. The Chios furnished king Gua- 
tavita numerous warriors for this war which occurred in 1537 
and recognized his successors as their legitimate sovereigns 
until into the 17th century. The king also sent to Ramiriqui 
(then doubtless Zaque) of Tunja for assistance against his 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 107 



rival. As Ramiriqui felt revengeful toward Bogata, because 
the latter had fallen into his country at a time when he himself 
had to endure hard struggles with the Panches ; he promised 
the king help and united large forces for that puropse. In 
the meanwhile the king had opened the campaign against Bo- 
gata by marching up the valley of Gachita. The rebel marshal, 
well informed about all the plans of his opponent and calmly 
trusting in his powerful and skilled army and in his chivalrous 
officers, marched to meet the approaching enemy. The two 
armies were already in touch with one another, skirmishes 
were already going on between the contending forces, when 
priests, chekes, and mohanes stepped forward to remind the 
warriors of the circumstances that the time had come when of- 
ferings should be brought to the gods and the ceremony of 
rural running be opened. Since tribute should be paid to the 
gods before the battle be fought, they proposed a postpone- 
ment of hostilities of twenty days or more. The proposal was 
accepted. 

Men and women sallied forth from both encampments, 
saluted one another and joined hands for very long circular 
dances, accompanied by lively music. They danced, and ate 
and drank, not as though they belonged to opposing armies, 
not as though they were full of bitter feelings. Having spent 
three days in dancing, debaucheries, and unrestrained lusts, 
order was given to begin the running from lake-altar to lake- 
altar, as related heretofore. On the eve before the run care- 
ful Bogata summoned his officers and admonished them to give 
their troops the secret order to carry their weapons concealed 
while they run and at a signal, to be understood by all, to at- 
tack their enemies in case these should pursue the running 
inoffensively. The order was promptly executed. At dawn 
of the morning much shouting and music was heard in Boga- 
ta's camp, not a man keeping silent. While Guatavita's peo- 
ple took up the run first, Bogata's men got ready to occupy 
their places and climbed up on the mountains so as not to stay 



108 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



behind in the contest. Hills and valleys soon were covered 
with enormous masses of people, each one striving to win a 
prize. When the soldiers of Bogata's camp were convinced 
that their opponents pursued their course unconcernedly, the 
officers gave their men the signal they * had agreed on; — and 
horrible was the slaughter that followed. The king then saw 
with horror the imminent danger in which he and his army 
had fallen and favored by the darkness of the following night, 
withdrew hastily through the valley of Gachita, leaving his 
camp and a numerous people in the hands of the enemy. 

After this victory to which falsehood and shrewdness had 
largely contributed, messengers brought the report to Bogata 
that the Panches, having seen the country unprotected, had 
made raids into it, had killed the few opposing them, and had 
dragged away men, women, and children, and much property. 
Other messengers reported that Ramiriqui, the Zaque of Tun- 
ja, was marching with a strong force to the assistance of the 
Zipa of Guatavita. These alarming reports reached Bogata 
when he was about to enter the town of Guatavita, the resi- 
dence of the fugitive sovereign. He found the place deserted, 
as all the old folk and other people unfit for war had gone 
away. Y nile he was at this town and made preparations to 
march against Ramiriqui, his flying squadron brought two 
messengers to him whom Ramiriqui had sent to the fugitive 
king. These bore the message that a number of strange men, 
never seen before, had come into the country in the direction 
of Yelez, men who had hair in their faces. Some of them 
were traveling on large animals that could talk, uttering loud 
voices, voices that could not be understood. He, Ramiriqui, 
would secure himself a place of refuge in his own country 
and advised the king to do the same in his country. Bogata 
was greatly pleased with this message, reporting this enemy's 
return. He decreed a general amnesty in consequence of 
which many fugitives returned to the town. While he then 
sent a division of troops to the great Savannas to repair the 



JAPANESE NATIONS AND TRIBES 



109 



damages the Panches had wrought on the western frontier, he 
himself marched at the head of another division to the plain 
of Nemocon where the unknown strangers were said to come 
into the country. Seeing but a small number of strangers, it 
seems that Bogata dismissed the larger part of his soldiers, 
retaining only a reduced number of selected warriors to oppose 
the few Spaniards. Under the leadership of Jimenez de Que- 
zada they had advanced from the Caribbean Sea in a march 
of one entire year, their number having decreased from 900 
men to 166. As the people of the Chibchas were numerous, 
the Spaniards called them moscas, flies. With this incident 
we leave the history of the Chibchas which, however, we shall 
have to take up again when we relate the conquest of their 
country by the Spaniards. 



110 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



AFRICAN TRIBES. 

Simultaneously with the Mongolians there lived in South 
America tribes of African type. When Columbus explored 
the northern coast of South America in 1499, everywhere he 
met a dark-colored race of men. Since we learned from the 
Chibchas that they had constantly to contend with Caribbean 
tribes, i. e. with the Panches and Colimas along the Magdalena, 
and since negro tribes mingled with the Botokudes on the 
banks of the Amazon in Brazil; we conclude that the entire 
northern section of the continent was inhabited by a dark-col- 
ored race, extending far into the interior. They distinguished 
themselves from the Chibchas and the Peruvians very decid- 
edly by their darker complexions and their eyes, by their mode 
of living which consisted in trade and robbery, by their bar- 
barous customs and their worship of the moon. As the Pan- 
ches and others living west of the Chibchas, were Caribbean 
tribes, so also were the wild hordes, roaming on the llanos 
that extend beyond the eastern mountain range, as far as the 
river Orinoco in Venezuela. On the banks of the Orinoco 
which winds its course through the tropical forest in many 
arms which overflow their banks and form an almost bound- 
less sea, Mr. Federman found dark-colored people, living like 
monkeys on the trees. 

The dark people who lived on the continent were by name 
distinguished from those inhabiting the adjacent islands; the 
former being called Carinas, the latter, Caribas and Canibas. 
After the last name the Spaniards called all of them Canibales, 
from which the English cannibals is derived. As all those 
dark people ate human flesh, this name has attained the ex- 
clusive meaning of a man eating savage. When the Spaniards 
first came in contact with them, they had begun to subdue the 
Arnakas who lived on the West Indian islands. They took the 
women of the killed Arnakas for wives, who, however, con- 
tinued to speak their native tongue and to retain their idols in 



AFRICAN TRIBES 



111 



their new relations of life. The Caribbeans made their living 
principally by carrying on trade with tribes that lived between 
the mouths of the Orinoco and the Amazon and by maritime 
robbery. Their national characteristic was piracy. They 
constructed vessels forty feet long and equipped them with 
two or three masts, eight or nine rowing benches, and a rud- 
der. Thirty to forty such vessels would constitute a fleet. 
They observed the movements of the heavenly bodies and thus 
calculated the seasons, years, and months. With their sea- 
trade and piracy they carried on a trade with slaves — evi- 
dently an African characteristic. The reader will notice the 
utter difference between the Caribbeans and the Ancient Peru- 
vians who cultivated the soil and erected substantial stone- 
buildings. The Caribbeans even sold children of their own 
tribes and fattened the captured boys of their enemies before 
they ate them. On account of their exceedingly sly and sud- 
den attacks and their poisoned arrows, they were very danger- 
ous. It is but natural that the Spaniards held them for the 
wildest of the savages. Being pirates and slave traders, they 
had no mind for agriculture. Only the women of the Carib- 
beans raised some manioc about their huts and knew how to 
weave cloth which they wore around the hips. This was, in- 
deed, their only piece of clothing. 

There are, however, remnants of a civilization even in the 
low condition of these barbaric Caribbeans. Their shipbuild- 
ing is such a remnant. Besides weaving, their wives knew 
how to make earthen vessels, some of which could hold twenty 
gallons. A beast-like people, such as they were when the 
Spaniards came among them, could not acquire those abilities ; 
but a people might retain them for centuries, while it sinks 
from its moral and social standing. There were among the 
Caribbeans even traces and remnants of ancient hieroglyphics. 
Also their organization revealed traces of orderly ambitions of 
by-gone times ; for all their tribes formed one great confed- 
eracy of sea-robbers while they themselves lived in mutual 



112 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



peace. In their extensive maritime trade they attacked and 
robbed strangers and undertook real expeditions for the pur- 
pose of conquering. 

Who were the Caribbeans and where did they come from ? 
They were not negroes ; for their complexion was not black, 
or their hair woolly, or their physiognomy that of negroes. 
They were, however, colored, had sleek hair, were built after 
the type of the inhabitants of North Africa. The native land 
of the colored race is Africa; particularly African also is the 
slave-trade. The inhabitants of the north and northwest coast 
of Africa were in ancient times known as daring seamen, trad- 
ers, and pirates, degenerating more to piracy in the course of 
time. Since ages they were the pirates of the Mediterranean. 
To the North Africans the Caribbeans bear great resemblance 
as far as their dark-brown complexion, their sleek, not woolly, 
hair, their strong physical constitution, and their national 
traits are concerned. Navigation from Africa to South Amer- 
ica is easy, because it is natural. Ocean currents are sea- 
routes and some connect continents. From Africa's northwest 
coast such a watery route leads to the South American north- 
east coast. A vessel wrecking off the coast of North West 
Africa, say near the Canary islands, might be driven into the 
vicinity of the mouth of the Orinoco. Such a carriage by the 
ocean current has actually taken place. For instance, in the 
year 1797 twelve negro slaves escaped from the coast of Afri- 
ca, entered a boat, and were left to good fortune. Five weeks 
later they landed at Barbados, one of the small West Indian 
islands. This incident is said not to be the only one. South 
of the equator a broad ocean current flows that would carry 
a vessel from the river Congo to Brazil. Here that current is 
divided into two arms embracing the entire eastern coast of 
South America by stretching one arm to the northwest as far 
as the Caribbean Sea and the other in a southerly direction 
as far as Fireland. Now it has actually happened that Euro- 
pean ships got to South America by chance. When, for in- 



AFRICAN TRIBES 



113 



stance, in March 1500 the king of Portugal ordered Peter 
Alvarez Cabral to sail with a fleet to India by the way of Good 
Hope, the admiral kept away from Africa's coast to avoid the 
calm that is prevailing there and being carried westward by 
the current, discovered land at his right. He landed, and 
found himself in the gulf of Bahia in Brazil. He took pos- 
session of the land in the name of the Portuguese king and thus 
Brazil became Portuguese possession. 

What occurred in modern times, likely also took place for- 
merly. All conditions indicate that daring seamen of the Ly- 
bian tribes of North Africa came to the valley of the Orinoco, 
spread over the entire north of the continent, and be- 
came the terror of the Caribbean Sea, which has its name 
from one of their tribes, the Caribas. With the North Afri- 
cans of former times, the physiognomy, piracy and slave-trade 
of the Caribbeans harmonize perfectly. 

There are negro tribes in eastern Brazil. They likewise 
have sleek hair, but distinguish themselves from the Caribbeans 
by their mode of living and especially by the fact that they 
make gigantic earthen vessels in cone-form in which they bury 
their dead in upright, almost standing position. In an entirely 
analogous manner do the Congo negroes dig and build holes 
in the earth that increase with depth conically. In these they 
entomb their chiefs in just such positions. Congo negroes 
must have found their way to Brazil on the broad south equa- 
torial ocean current. With man cultivated plants migrate 
from country to country. Mr. Candolles is of the conviction 
that the nourishing yamroot was brought from Africa to South 
America. 



8 



PERIOD III 

SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 
1500 B. C. to ico A. D. 



114 



THREE PROOFS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF AN 
ABORIGINAL RACE. 

The peoples and tribes of South America which we have 
learned to know so far, were descendants of Mongolian 
and African nationalities ; but they were not South America's 
first inhabitants. The Ancient Peruvians especially and also 
the Chibchas knew from tradition that their ancestors had 
found a population in America when they immigrated. We 
have at the proper place spoken of the Old Peruvian national 
god Pachacamac. The tradition of this people knows of still 
another national god, called Con. This god Con, like Pachaca- 
mac of old, was spiritual and almighty. Con had dwelled in 
the whole universe, had raised the Andes mountains, had made 
the valleys level, and filled rivers, lakes, and oceans with water. 
Having given life to men he had peopled the earth with .them; 
but men proved themselves unworthy of so many blessings, 
failed to obey their creator, and led culpable lives. 

Therefore god Con punished them by turning them into 
animals and making the land sterile. According to one ver- 
sion Pachacamac was the son of Con and came to reign over 
this world later than Con. Another view claims that god 
Con entered the country from the north and was for a long 
time the supreme god of the Peruvians and that god Pachaca- 
mac came from the south, dethroned Con, and changed men 
into monkeys. 

These two national divinities of Ancient Peru were the 
supreme gods of two distinct races that inhabited the country 
in succession. That Con was first in possession of the world 
wants to say that his worshipers inhabited Peru first; these 

115 



116 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Con worshipers were the original inhabitants. That Pacha- 
camac, as tradition says, came from the south and dethroned 
god Con evidently has the meaning that his worshipers, the 
Japanese, entered Peru from Bolivia and established their re- 
ligion and civilization in the country in which god Con's wor- 
ship had prevailed so long. And the saying that Con turned 
men into animals and Pachacamac particularly into monkeys 
doubtless means to say that Peru's first inhabitants had sunken 
very low and were living like animals, when the half-civilized 
Japanese, wearing clothing, immigrated. Those aborgines 
lived on trees and, therefore, were called monkeys by the Jap- 
anese immigrants. 

Besides the traditions, the absence of architectural re- 
mains furnishes an important evidence of an aboriginal popu- 
lation, prior to the Ancient Peruvian. We have learned to 
know the Mongolian Peruvians as a race eminently skillful in 
architectural work and in other employments. Yes, the people 
of today still marvel at their imposing structures. Nations 
kindred to them, such as the Shyriites in Ecuador, the Chib- 
chas in Colombia, the Manshusikuers in Paraguay erected tem- 
ples and other solid edifices and embellished them. Wherever 
members of this ingenious race made their abode, there we 
find various traces of civilization. The Incas took possession 
of the rich estate of this people ; but when they extended their 
conquests southward and entered Chile in the 15th century, 
they found no signs of skillful labor anywhere. Nor did the 
Spaniards in the following century, find, in Chile as far south 
as they went, anything but poor, unskilled natives, natives who 
lived in lightly built huts and lived meagerly. South of the 
Biobio the Spaniards were confronted, as we shall learn, by 
courageous, warlike natives ; however, works of art and archi- 
tecture could not be found in all Chile. Neither did the In- 
dians of the Argentine pampas erect edifices, nor were they 
able to apply skillful ability. One would expect the inhabi- 
tants of the south temperate zone with its severe climate to 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 117 



secure for themselves ample protection against rain and storm 
and the winter's cold. Their country did not lack timber or 
stones for building purposes ; but they did not know how to 
put the raw material to use. They made huts of reed and clay, 
lacking the elementary requirements of civilized life. Yes, 
the fact that the people of a severe climate lived in miserable 
huts, while the inhabitants of torrid Peru erected structures 
of rocks so firm and solid as to defy centuries, — this fact is 
a distinguishing characteristic, a feature that proves the differ- 
ence of races. Chile and the Argentine pampas were original- 
ly not inhabited by people from Peru, though Ancient Peruvi- 
ans mingled with Chilean natives ; the natives of these coun- 
tries did not belong to the Mongolian race. 

With the very primitive condition of the Chilean and Ar- 
gentine natives that of the Aborigines of Peru harmonizes. 
They had but the rudimentary knowledge of life, for they left 
no signs of architectural works. They were naked or partly 
naked and lived on trees, for which reason the Japanese im- 
migrants looked at them with contempt. Artificial mounds 
about 100 feet high, thrown up to bury the dead and to wor- 
ship, are the only traces of their existence in Peru. The life 
of these aboriginal Peruvians was absorbed by that of the 
Japanese Mongolians, and the worship of god Con was re- 
placed by that of Pachacamac. — In Brazil descendants of 
these first inhabitants are existing up to the present time, as in 
Argentina and in Chile. For there are tribes still extant in 
that country that are not kindred to the African race which 
constitutes the main portion of its native population. The 
Brazilian aborigines which lived near the coast built mounds or 
hills from sea-shells, called sambaques. The shells were ar- 
ranged in layers and have attracted the attention of scientific 
travelers, who have investigated the sambaques and written 
detailed articles on them. Thus we find aborigines in Chile, 
in Argentina, in Brazil, and traces of them in Peru and Colom- 
bia. 



118 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



After tradition and absence of architectural remains we 
advance public vices and virtues as proofs for a third race in 
Primitive South America. Among the Ancient Peruvians and 
among nations and tribes kindred to them we met voluptuous- 
ness in different forms, national vices that permeated and cor- 
rupted every tribe. In Peru the Incas endeavored to put a 
stop to the pernicious evil ; among the Botokudes it had ac- 
cepted the saddest forms ; among the Chibchas it led to devil- 
ish perversion and worship. Let no one say that similar vices 
are common to all natives. To one race or people they are 
peculiar ; to another, entirely foreign. As far as we know the 
South American aborigines, they were chaste and socially 
pure ; adultery had no place amongst them. Public senti- 
ment revolted against an exceptional case in such a manner 
that the perpetrator was condemned to death. Nor can a 
trace of cannibalism or slavery be found among the aborigines. 
Not yet cultured by civilized life, not yet corrupted by public 
vices, the first inhabitants of South America present them- 
selves to us as a third race. 

Thus the reader will be convinced, that already before the 
Japanese-Mongolian immigration there existed in South Amer- 
ica an aboriginal race. The Japanese-Mongolians had lived and 
labored in Peru and adjacent countries over a thousand years 
when the Incas arrived in 1250, having reached their American 
abodes about 100 A. D. Consequently the aborigines had 
roamed over the continent, already long before the Christian 
era. They did not all arrive at the same time. One company 
or tribe was moved out of its place and pushed forward by 
another. The wandering went on from west to east. They 
came from the western islands from across the Pacific ocean ; 
they came from Malaysia and were Malays. The most of 
them landed at the coast of Chile and, continuing their wan- 
derings towards the east and the north, they scattered over the 
larger part of the continent sparingly already in remote antiq- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 119 



uity. The historic proofs of these broad-cast thoughts we 
shall give later. 

Of all the aborigines those of South Chile, this rendes- 
vouz of the Malay immigration, developed most vigorously. 
Here south of the river Maule the valiant tribes of the Pro- 
maucaes lived. All the tribes bearing this name appear to 
have formed a close confederacy; for as late as the 15th 
century they were strong enough to keep the Incas in check. 
The latter, experienced in warfare, and, as we have learned, 
having defeated many an old Peruvian kingdom and tribe, 
marched victoriously through northern Chile, till they reached 
the river Maule where their march was checked and where they 
were repulsed by the Promaucaes. These Chilean natives re- 
tained their independence from the Incas ; and those still farth- 
er south were never conquered by any army, either Spanish or 
Chilean. These latter natives who were never subdued are 
the Araucanians, whom we shall present to our readers as 
specimens of the Malay race, the South American aborigines. 

1. THE ARAUCANIANS. 

These natives live in the beautiful country, named after 
them Araucania, through which we now will take a stroll. As 
the author lived a number of years in Araucania, he is glad to 
give a brief description of this country. Araucania was for- 
merly that extensive, delightful, and rich territory which is 
limited on the north by the river Biobio, on the south by the 
Valdivia, on the east by the Andes mountains, and on the west 
by the Pacific ocean. At present it is divided into five Chilean 
provinces. The Biobio which like all rivers of Chile, has its 
source in the Andes, receives in its northwesterly course many 
tributaries, and empties into the Pacific, near the city of Con- 
cepcion. It is Chile's largest river. The river Token is the 
outlet of lake Villa Rica which lies at the foot of the volcano, 
bearing the same name. A coast range extends through the 



12G 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 121 



western part of Arciucania, is rugged, and rises to a consider- 
able height. In one of the cultivated valleys of this range 
was our first stopping place in Chile. The road over the 
range which leads in many windings up on the steep slope, al- 
ways fatigued the travelers. But having climbed the rugged 
summit, a landscape lay open before our eyes that made us 
forget all our hardships. Facing towards the east we looked 
over a very extensive forest of semitropical trees in their 
youthful verdure. Beyond it our views roamed over a plain 
that extends at least seventy miles eastward, is traversed by 
many streams and broken up by hills and elevations. This 
plain is in the far east limited by the heaven aspiring Andes 
whose snow-clad summits seemed to be lost in the gray, cloudy 
sky. They drew the eastern limits of our vision. At the foot 
of the Andes are numerous lakes that give rise to the many 
streams. 

Araucania is not only beautiful, but rich in natural resour- 
ces also. The mountains are richly wooded with slender trees 
rising to a height of 150 feet. Capriciously creeping plants 
encircle trunks and branches and decorate even the leafy 
crown with handsome flowers. High on top of the tallest 
trees one sees bell-shaped flowers in blossom. From one for- 
est tree thus decorated the creeping plants will grow down- 
ward, strike roots in the ground, creep along the earth to an- 
other tree, wind up on it too, to embellish it with flowers. 
They will repeat these capricious windings till they have unit- 
ed a number of trees one with another. Beneath this lofty 
bower of flowers and branches made by nature's skill, the 
traveler beholds the marvelous formations God's wisdom and 
bounty have exhibited wherever his eyes may turn. The for- 
ests are rich in all kinds of building timber. However, low 
thorny bushes grown together cover the woodlands at places 
so densely that the traveler has to open a path with a hatchet. 
In the midst of the forest and especially on the banks of rivers 
and creeks are pastures which are in summer covered with an 



122 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



excellent kind of grass of such a height that the sheep pastur- 
ing there are hidden in it. In spring the grassy soil produces 
delicious berries of various kinds. Grains, pulse plants, and 
vegetables are raised in abundance on cultivated lands. 

Araucania is also rich in animal life. Of the domestic 
animals the horse is least to be dispensed with ; for riding is a 
universal custom. But alas ! the noble animal has irrecon- 
cilable enemies, the lions. These beasts, which are found in 
large numbers in mountainous regions, lie in wait for the 
horses and pursue them in deadly careers. The lion lying in 
wait will suddenly jump upon the horse, seizing him by an ear. 
A desperate fight now is on and usually ends in the defeat of 
the horse, falling to the ground. Seldom he is so fortunate 
as to escape and even then he leaves his ear to the enemy. The 
Chilean lion, called yaguar, is inferior to the African in noble 
bearing and generosity ; he is rather a tiger-cat. The Arauca- 
nians are skillful in hunting the yaguar. Customarily they hit 
the animal with the laqui, a rope with two or three balls of 
silver or another heavy metal fastened to one end. Have they 
succeeded to throw the yaguar to the ground, they jump upon 
him to kill him. Often they set wooden traps in the moun- 
tains and tie lambs on them. At the bleating of the lamb the 
lion sneaks near to get a prey, makes a big jump and is always 
caught by the trap, remaining a close prisoner. Besides the 
yaguar the mountains are frequented by guanacos, which for- 
merly supplied the Araucanians with wool, and by a species of 
deer two and a half feet in height, very gracefully built and 
of a dark-yellow color. Lastly there are foxes and mountain 
cats, and the amphibious huillines which live on fishes. The 
huillines are two and a half feet long, from five to six inches 
high, and six inches broad. Their furs are exported to Eu- 
rope in large quantities and are highly valued. 

Among the birds of Araucania the largest is the condor; 
he is the king of the Andes. When the mountains are covered 
with snow or when a storm is about to break loose, he swoops 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 123 



down upon the plains to seize a sheep or a kid for his sus- 
tenance. The flamingo is noteworthy for its red-colored 
wings and beautiful shape. The swan, the duck, and the 
heron are found in the vicinities of all the rivers. Some 
feathered inhabitants of the air are robbers and at times be- 
come a real plague to the husbandmen ; to wit, wild pigeons 
which come in flocks so numerous that they darken the sky, 
and parrots. The pigeons light upon the fields of grain and 
destroy the seeds, while the parrots settle upon the groves of 
wild appletrees to feast upon the fruit from which the Arau- 
canians prepare the favorite drink chicha. They pluck the 
apples from the trees, part them carefully, take the kernels 
for themselves, and throw the fleshy parts generously to the 
ground. The natives gather the pieces and make their drink 
from them. 

Araucania's climate is the best in all Chile; it compares 
favorably with that of southern California. After the un- 
pleasant season of the winter rains a long splendid summer 
follows. The summer evenings are most delightful. In the 
mild and wholesome climate all species of plants and grains 
of temperate and semitropical zones grow abundantly. Men 
and animals grow strong. Contagious diseases are not at 
home in Araucania ; only, smallpox become prevalent at 
times, because vaccination has not yet been introduced every- 
where. The Araucanians ordinarily are a robust people and 
of rather medium stature. The members of the body are well 
proportioned, extraordinarily muscular, and strong. The feet 
are small and flat. The skin is rather rough and of light- 
brown color; the hair is black, thick, and long. The face, 
almost round and without a beard, has a somewhat flat nose, 
small and intelligently looking eyes, and a small mouth which 
is supplied with an excellent set of white teeth. The females 
are well built, corpulent, and of a low stature. Both sexes 
generally attain a very old age, not a few exceeding one hun- 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




ARAUCANIAN AT 95 AND WIFE 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



125 



dred years. Teeth, sight, and hair retain normal conditions 
until old age. 

The Araucanian is ignorant indeed, but has, nevertheless, 
very good qualities. As he is courageous and daring, he never 
submits to an enemy, but rather defends his native soil step 
by step against any strangers who may dare to invade it. His 
home is dearer to him than anything else in this world ; he 
loves it as he loves his independence and is always ready to 
defend it, cost it what it may. Jealous of his honor and of 
the honor of his wife or his wives, he is at every moment ready 
to fight on account of a word that may, though only indirect- 
ly, offend them or himself. Being extremely conscientious in 
reference to agreements made, he looks after his creditor on 
the day agreed upon to settle with him. Since he is careful, 
he does not commence any undertaking without previously 
considering matters in detail. In his generosity he gladly as- 
sists the needy ; in his gratefulness he returns benevolence 
for benevolence. Laying great importance upon hospitality, 
he never leaves a stranger standing at his door, but invites him 
to enter. Gifted with an extraordinary strength of memory, 
he never forgets a kindness shown him nor an offense given 
him. Patiently and with submission he suffers all kinds of 
difficulties and hardships. And finally, to this attractive por- 
trait of Araucania's native we must add as finishing touch 
the noble virtue of chastity. Chaste by nature and by habit, 
he observes social purity in a higher degree than is even found 
in many civilized nations. Adultery has no place in Arau- 
cania ; but should this base crime ever disturb domestic peace, 
public conscience demands punishment, and capital punishment 
follows. This trait of character which the Araucanians have 
kept pure, We have already recognized as a mark of distinc- 
tion between the aborigines and the Asiatic and African inhab- 
itants of South America. Paul Treutler, who traveled in 
Araucania and is a Catholic, writes that there is a higher de- 
gree of moral purity in the interior than at the limits, because 



126 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



in touch with the Chileans they accepted their passions. Mr. 
Treutler might have stated that the Araucanians in their na- 
tive estate live purer lives than the Catholic Chilenos generally 
observe. — It must, however, also be stated that polygamy has 
become a custom among the Araucanians. Each man has two, 
three, four or even as many as twelve wives ; as many as his 
rank among his people or his personal property will allow him 
to have. In addition to this error two other principal defects 
mar the Araucanian's character: he is fond of intoxicating 
drinks and is lazy. 

Sad, very sad is the condition of the Araucanian women. 
Entirely controlled by the will of the parents, the girl spends 
the years of her youth in the occupations of the house with- 
out receiving permission to enjoy herself with her youthful 
companions or to spend some time in such plays as children 
need and love. During her young womanhood she continues 
to live in the same submissive condition. The custom of her 
people does not concede her the right to select the companion 
of her life by her own choice. The father makes the selection 
or rather sells his daughter to a man for a number of animals, 
customarily without the slightest knowledge on her part. As 
a rule the Araucanian women are friendly and submissive and 
show good judgment in the domestic occupations and the train- 
ing of their children. 

The clothing of the Araucanians is plain. The women 
formerly wove four-cornered pieces of cloth from the wool of 
the guanacos ; now they make them from sheep's wool. Many 
men fold this cloth around their legs, imitating breeches. 
Since ages they wear the characteristic poncho. This also is 
a four-cornered piece of woolen cloth with an oblong hole in 
the center which allows the head to stick through and, hanging 
down from the shoulders, covers the entire upper part of the 
body. As the Spaniards found the poncho very serviceable, 
they introduced it. In our days it is fabricated by Chilenos 
in various qualities and, being exceedingly comfortable espe- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 127 



cially on horseback, the poncho has become a national apparel 
of Chile. The poncho is also found among the inhabitants of 
the South Pacific islands, the Polynesians. Will not the Arau- 
canians have brought it hither? As adornment the Arauca- 
nian uses a red cloth to tie up his hair, and he wears silver 
spurs which he fastens around his bare limbs and which he 
values higher than anything that may be offered him. 

The women wear pieces of woolen cloth which they fas- 
ten around the waist and the shoulders so as to cover the whole 
body, only leaving the arms free for action. The thick, 
braided hair the women wind around the head leaving the 
ends of the braids project behind the ears. When they go out 
on a walk or journey, they throw a light cloth over their heads, 
which they fasten upon the breast with a silver pin whose head 
is as large as an apple of medium size. The ornaments of the 
females are exclusively made of silver and are really neat. 
They adorn the hair with strings of pearls, the neck with long 
chains hanging down over the breast, the arms with bracelets, 
and the ears with silver plates about three inches square which 
naturally enlarge the earlaps unbecomingly. 

In art and science the Araucanians are lacking, with ex- 
ceptions, even the elementary notions. The women know how 
to spin and to weave cloth, and how to make pots and jars of 
clay. The men have some practical ideas on seasons and 
times. They are able to calculate the exact duration of the 
year by determining both solstices. Because they live on the 
southern hemisphere, they set the summer solstice on December 
22nd and the winter solstice on June 22nd. They also divide 
the year into twelve months and into 365 days ; but they allow 
only 30 days to each month and add the remaining five days to 
the last month. "Cujen" is the Araucanian name for moon 
and for month, too. The name of each particular month is 
taken from the rural products, the prevailing weather or from 
the occupation of the particular season ; as follows, — 



128 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



January, 
February 
March, 
April, 
May, 
June, 

July, 

August, 



Avun-cujen, 
Cogi-cujen, 
Glor-cujen, 
Rimu-cu j en, 
Inan rimu-cu j en, 
Thor-cujen, 
Inan thor-cujen, 
Huin-cujen, 
September, Pillel-cuj en, 
October, Hucul-cujen, 



fruit month; 
harvest month ; 
corn month ; 
rimu (a flower) month; 
second rimu month ; 
rainy month; 
second rainy month ; 
disagreeable month ; 
deceiving month; 
month of new purchases ; 
November,Inan hucul-cujen, second month of new purchases; 
December, Huevun-cujen, month of new fruits. 

The Araucanian language is beautiful; it is expressive, 
poetic, and strictly grammatical. The entire language is ex- 
pressed in strict grammatical forms and can be learned by 
clear logical rules. The alphabet consists of the letters of the 
Latin language with two exceptions ; to wit, it lacks the Latin 
x and has the sound of tr which the Latin has not. The use 
of compound words is very general. And there are only very 
few simple words which could not serve as roots to form 
other words and which could not become infinitives of verbs, 
simply by affixing the letter "n." In no part of speech one can 
find deviations from general rules which are so common in 
the European languages. Nouns and verbs have, like the 
Greek, the three numbers singular, plural, and dual. The con- 
jugation of the verb requires neither pronoun nor participle. 
Besides the common six tenses of the English, it is conjugated 
in a second present and in two mixed tenses, in all in nine 
tenses. The language has, for each of the nine tenses, a spe- 
cial infinitive and a special participle and, therefore, peculiari- 
ties that afford it a diversity of expressions, unknown to us. 
The nine tenses are conjugated in the indicative, the conjunc- 
tive, and the imperative moods, and in the active and passive 
voices. The noun has the six cases of the Latin and, as stated, 
the three numbers of the Greek. 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



129 



To develop such a language, a mental ability was neces- 
sary that was able to create corresponding notions and to pro- 
duce adequate forms of expressions. The Araucanians of our 
time have not such an ability and, consequently, have not pro- 
duced their rich language. Of this fact one is readily con- 
vinced who visits their country, investigates their intellectual 
ability, and observes their customs and ways ; he is surprised 
at the stupid conditions they live in. Their beautiful language 
must be a product of by-gone ages, of times when their fore- 
fathers led higher intellectual lives. The Araucanians must 
have brought this language down through the generations as 
a remnant of a national prosperity, as an inheritance of liter- 
ary productiveness of former times. This opinion is corrob- 
orated by the investigations of Mr. Treutler who traveled ex- 
tensively among the Picuntos, an Araucanian tribe. He 
writes : "They have a large number of expressions and words 
in their language, that designate abstract ideas and notions 
which they do not understand any more and of which they 
make use only in peculiar circumstances and at certain occa- 
sions. That language is the result of lucky intelligent connec- 
tions of ideas, which evidently can not be attributed to the un- 
civilized." This being true, the conclusion must be accepted, 
that the Araucanians were formerly more intelligent than at 
present and that they deteriorated. They must be members of 
a people or of a race that once had a cultured language, which 
was their national treasure. Mr. Ellis, also traveling in Arau- 
cania, found there numerous words of the inhabitants of 
New Zealand who speak the Malay language. And the three 
grammatical numbers, singular, dual, and plural, are, accord- 
ing to Dr. Ebrard, likewise found in the languages of the East 
India islands, of New Zealand, and of the Philippine islands. 

Thus there is a relation between the Araucanian language 
and the language of Malaysia. Let it be remembered that the 
Malay race spread over all the islands of the Pacific lying 
south of the equator. In their struggle towards the east dur- 

9 



130 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ing a long course of time, they reached the Easter islands, 
which lie some 600 geographical miles from Chile's coast. 
The languages which these far and widely scattered islanders 
spoke, are a union, a family of languages, called the Malay- 
Polynese group. Of this group the language spoken on the 
Sunda or East India islands experienced most development 
and is there the popular and commercial language. Java's 
language of literature and poetry is called Kawi. The Kawi 
literature flourished in the centuries after Christ and found a 
wide circulation over the southern Pacific islands by the sea- 
faring Malays. It must have been brought to Araucania ; for 
only thus we obtain an understanding of the poetic and strictly 
grammatical language of the Araucanians. Its development 
Mr. Treutler could not attribute to barbarians ; and we have 
declared it to be a remnant of culture of by-gone ages. This 
we consider a further proof for the Malay origin of the Arau- 
canians. 

Araucania's language then affords another interesting il- 
lustration for the world-wide historic fact that a people left 
to itself goes to ruin. Intelligence weakens ; ideas arid ideals 
dwindle away ; men grow wild. The evolution theory of a 
normal development of man by virtue of natural forces, finds 
neither support in Araucania nor in any other part of Primi- 
tive South America. They did not develop from the low con- 
dition of animal-like men to reasoning and higher intelligence ; 
but they fell from the spheres of mental activity and literary 
prosperity into poverty of thought, into stupidity and bar- 
barism. 

Among a people unacquainted with industrial pursuits and 
skillful works, one looks in vain for somewhat developed re- 
ligious ideas. For where there is a religious system, there 
also is religious service. And where there is religious service, 
there also is art, even if only the very beginning. But art 
erects buildings and embellishes them according to its own 
ability. Thus religion is a source of art and progress. 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



131 



With the stupid and unskilled Araucanians religious 
thoughts are of a very rudimentary character ; neither did they 
build any temples, nor erect altars. They acknowledged a 
divine creator and preserver of the universe. The supreme 
being they designate with the name Pillan, i. e. spirit. The 
name was taken from the Old Peruvian word "villa" which 
means to speak. It appears ' that the Araucanians originally 
called the creator of the world Guen-Cubu and that, with the 
introduction of Pillan, Guen-Cubu was degraded to the posi- 
tion and office of an evil spirit. For he is now the spirit of 
evil, the originator of all misfortune that may befall men. 
Moilen (or Meulen) is a good god and is friendly to men. 
Thalclave is god of thunder, Eponemon god of war. The 
Araucanians believe, that there is an exalted place in or above 
the clouds where the good gods dwell. At the same time they 
claim that almighty Pillan has his dwelling place in the princi- 
pal volcano of their country, called Villa Rica, whose eruptions 
and rumblings they evidently attribute to his indwelling. To 
this god in the volcano they show high regard at all occasions. 
The gods, they say, as a rule care but little for men ; at times, 
however, they are said to communicate with them by means of 
certain genii that serve the gods as their messengers. Guen- 
Cubu appears now and then in the visible form of a wild ani- 
mal, and it means an early death to him who has such an ap- 
pearance. The Araucanians believe also in the immortality 
of the soul, in eternal reward of the good and everlasting pun- 
ishment of the wicked. The eternal homes of the souls are 
not with the gods ; the future life rather begins beyond a cer- 
tain mysterious mountain which they believe to lie in the midst 
of the Pacific Ocean. Thither the souls go after death to rest 
from the toils of this life. May this singular belief not have 
originated in a homesickness of the ancestors, may it not have 
germinated in the recollections of homes or of a native land 
they had left in the western sea and in the ardent desire to 
return to that homeland once again? Desire is called the 



132 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



father of thought, but it is still oftener a father of hope and 
belief. The Araucanians' - belief in the homes of the souls, 
points to the land of their origin. 

They have neither priests, nor temples, nor idols. Their 
religious service consists mainly in sacrificing animals in the 
open air, but is not polluted by human sacrifices. By offering 
animals they hope to appease the anger of the gods whom they 
believe to be angry, when a disease or another misfortune be- 
falls them, They also offer cider and whiskey for libation. 
Before drinking of these liquors in common life or at festive 
occasions, they dip a few fingers into them and fling some 
drops in the direction of volcano Villa Rica to consecrate the 
liquor to almighty Pillan. 

It is noteworthy what Dr. Ebrard reports concerning the 
Araucanian tradition of the deluge. According to the same 
"a flood covered the whole earth. A few men saved them- 
selves on a mountain, which had three peaks, was swimming 
on the water, and was called 'Lightning.'" The recollection 
that those men saved themselves on a swimming mountain was 
confounded with the recollection of the mountain on which the 
swimming object landed. The three peaks of the mountain 
were confounded with the three men who sat on it. The num- 
ber three repeats itself in the most traditions of the deluge, for 
it is the number of the sons of the flood hero." 

More firmly than in their gods, the Araucanians put trust 
in their medicine men and sorcerers. They question them 
very often and obey them unconditionally; although those 
men are void of all knowledge pertaining to medicine and are 
but mere frauds. 

Having made the acquaintance of Araucania and her peo- 
ple in a general sense, we shall gather from Mr. Treutler's 
travels such features of their actual life as will serve our par- 
pose, leaving out many valuable informations. We shall join 
a few customs and practices to degradation and barbarism, so 
as to draw a life-picture of these South American aborigines. 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



133 



DWELLINGS AND SALUTATIONS. 

Treutler's expedition, carrying many presents for the na- 
tives, first arrived at the house of chief Martin. As soon as 
the chief comprehended that Mr. Treutler intended to pay him 
a visit, he sent some of his sons to assist in forwarding his 
baggage, while he himself went to the door of his house to 
greet him and his companions. He saluted them with the cus- 
tomary, yet hearty Araucanian greeting: "Marri-Marri," and 
then invited them to come in. The exterior of the house had 
the shape of a chapel. It was at least 120 feet long and half 
as wide. Like all Araucanian houses it was erected of reeds 
and clay, thatched, and had only one door that admitted men 
and animals without distinction. The interior was separated 
into various departments. Through the middle of the house 
led a kind of hall 30 feet wide, which, however, was separated 
into three sections used by the wives of the chief. In each 
section a fire was burning, a fire for each wife. From this 
custom of keeping a fire burning for each wife, the disgustive 
habit of asking how many fires do you keep burning has orig- 
inated, when one wants to know how many wives the other 
man may have. This heartless habit to speak of a wife as of 
a thing, shows the cold relation which polygamy is bringing 
about. On both sides of the three sections were rooms which 
were partitioned off by thin reed walls and served as dormitor- 
ies for the family. The upper part of the house was a loft, 
where the harvest was stored up. 

When the visitors entered the women and their children 
were with crossed legs sitting on guanaco skins near the fires. 
The guests being invited to be seated, took places on the 
ground in the circle around a fire, when the interpreter of 
the expedition began the customary formalities of salutation. 
These are a real ceremony that constitutes an essential part 
of a visit and requires time. More than half an hour the peo- 
ple successively repeated the compliments. The clever salut- 



134 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ing conversation sounded to the German visitor like a quickly 
spoken gibberish. It began with a singsong drawled out in 
vehement increases and decreases of voices and then continued 
in crescendo till it became a capricious jargon. The saluting 
formalities having ended, a lamb was brought, tied to a post, 
and butchered. They then put salt and red pepper in the 
bleeding throat, had the seasoned blood run into a vessel, 
poured it in small wooden plates, and served it while still warm 
to all who were present. Though the drink of blood was dis- 
gustive to Mr. Treutler, yet for the sake of his travels and 
because it was the sign of friendship between himself and the 
natives, he did not venture to refuse. With distorted features 
he emptied the wooden plate in company with his uncivilized 
friends. Next the mutton was roasted on fire in the open air 
and served to the guests. These found the meat so tasteful 
that they thought the best landlords of London or Paris would 
have envied them for it. Friendship being established, Mr. 
Treutler presented the chief and his wives with red handker- 
chiefs, tobacco, and glass pearls. Martin highly pleased with 
the visit, invited his friends on that delightful afternoon to 
take a walk through his fields. The guests found them as 
well cultivated as could be expected of people who do not know 
anything about science and art. On the fields grew grain, corn, 
potatoes, beans, and the like, and they produced sufficient feed 
for the numerous herds of cattle and sheep, owned by the 
chief. Mr. Treutler met the father of the already sixty years 
old host, too. The good old Araucanian had then reached an 
age of hundred and ten years ; at that high age he enjoyed the 
good use of his eyes, ears, and teeth, etc., and was able to ex- 
press himself readily in Spanish. 

At the departure of the expedition, chief Martin had the 
baggage loaded on his own mules, supplied the travelers with 
riding horses, and ordered his son to accompany them to the 
cacique and to introduce them to him. By so doing he ob- 
served the praiseworthy custom generally practiced by his peo- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



135 



pie, not to part from any friend without having him accom- 
panied by one or two mocetones to the next village or ranch. 

MANNER OF RAISING CHILDREN. 

When after a weary journey and all drenched with rain 
Mr. Treutler and his companions arrived at the town of Nim- 
pue, an Araucanian received them kindly into his house. Here 
they were resting from their hardships and were putting their 
wet clothes to the fire to dry, when they heard the crying of 
a babe to which the wife just then had given birth. To their 
very great astonishment they saw the mother leave the house 
immediately with the babe in her arms. When they then 
pointed out to their host the danger to which his wife was ex- 
posing herself, he laughingly said that his country women did 
not experience any mishap by going on that way; his wife 
was only doing what all Araucanian women did in like circum- 
stances ; she had simply gone to a river nearby to bathe herself 
and the child and would soon return in good health and 
strength. And really! After a little while the woman re- 
turned with the newcomer and took up the housework as 
though nothing unusual had happened. 

Neither the comforts nor the enervations of civilized life 
are known in Araucania. The little ones are early accustomed 
to a hard, rough life. They are neither wrapped up in warm, 
soft, swaddling cloths and bedded in pillows, nor are they clad 
in neat dresses and odd hoods. They are put neither in rock- 
ing cradles nor in rolling wagons. Bed and cradle of the 
Araucanian baby is a board three feet long and one foot wide. 
It has a strap at one end for the purpose of carrying or sus- 
pending it. The little one wrapped up in woolen blankets or 
furs, is fastened to this board. Fastened to a board ! Hard 
lot! Discouraging beginning! Yes, indeed, I am in favor of 
the human way of raising our little ones, of the way that 
makes them laugh cheerily and smile hopefully. Is the baby 
of the Araucanian mother to sleep, she lays it with the board 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




MOTHER WITH BABY 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



137 



on the ground. Does it cry, she hangs the board with the 
baby on a post or on the branch of a tree and swings it to and 
fro. Does she want to nurse the baby, she lays it to the breast 
with the board. When she is busy with her domestic work, 
she places the board to the wall in a half upright position and 
pursues her work with great contentment. In case she goes 
out she hangs the board with the baby on her back, suspended 
by the strap around, her forehead. In the case of twins she 
lets one dangle down in front and the other behind. Thus 
loaded with a pair of children Araucanian women are seen 
riding on horseback at full speed. 

We have already stated that the lot of the Araucanian 
females is an unfortunate one. As babies they are on the 
hard, stiff board ; in their youth they are under the unreason- 
able authority of the father; as wives they are the slaves of 
labor and toil. Early in life the girl is obliged to take part in 
the labors of the house and the field and to carry heavy loads 
on her head or on the back suspended by a strap around the 
forehead. They do not enjoy the blessings. of instruction or 
the benefits of associating with playmates. The father dis- 
poses of his grown up daughter for a number of domestic ani- 
mals ; henceforth she is the real supporter of the household. 
Thus she drags herself through a dreary life, a life not yet 
cheered by Christianity. 

ORACLE AND EXECUTION. 

The Araucanians, especially the women, are very clever 
in looking for poisonous plants and in extracting the malignant 
liquid. The females have the poison constantly in their pos- 
session as a fatal means to avenge an oflense inflicted on them, 
or to comply with an oath they have sworn. There is, name- 
ly, among their ornaments a necklace composed of leaden parts 
resembling thimbles. In these small receptacles they keep 
the deadly poison ; the unarmed woman supplies herself with a 
very effective means of revenge and applies it treacherously 



138 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



under the pretense of. polite kindness. She simply pours the 
contents of a receptacle into a cup of water or cider, offers it 
to the one marked by her, and the hideous intention is carried 
into effect. — The Araucanians do not know what sicknesses are 
or rather do not consider diseases as such. If any one dies, 
nor from the consequences of a fight or from old age, they 
believe he was poisoned or the devil killed him. If any one 
is believed to have been poisoned, they call on the oracle to an- 
nounce the perpetrator of the crime. Is any one believed to 
be possessed by the devil, the Machi has to drive the devil out. 

The principal oracle is in the territory of the Boroan tribe, 
that lives north of the river Tolten. This tribe is a singular 
phenomenon, for it distinguishes itself, characteristically from 
the other Araucanians. The Boroans are rather slender, of 
white complexion, have nice facial expressions, blond hair, flat 
noses, and large blue eyes. They are likely degenerated Euro- 
peans. The most trustworthy opinion concerning them is that 
they are descendants of Hollanders who were shipwrecked long 
ago on the neighboring rockbound coast. At present they live 
in a wild state and are taken for an Araucanian tribe. — To 
their sorcerer, in cases of poisoning, the Araucanians go from 
far and wide to have him announce the criminal. Having re- 
ceived many presents of horses, cattle, silver ornaments, and 
other gifts which they offer him, he makes them tell him the 
story of the crime in detail and then asks for names, names of 
the friends and enemies of the deceased and of all other per- 
sons with whom he may have had intercourse in life. Then 
acting as though he consulted heaven, he utters false deceiving 
invocations and strange disconnected clamors, commits himself 
to a process of ridiculous writhings and twistings and to at- 
tacks of madness. In this confused state of mind he names 
one or two persons with whom the poisoned person had some 
relation in life. This is the final decision and taken for the 
infallible judgment of heaven. Any individual thus stigma- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 139 



tized is the victim of execution, which is regularly carried into 
effect by burning to death. 

When the Boroanese diviner once had declared a certain 
young girl to be the one who had poisoned a young chief and 
when she was under the sentence to be burned alive, the chief 
of the district sent an invitation to the missionary of Imperial 
to be present at the execution in order that he might convince 
himself of the justice and propriety of their way of proceed-- 
ing. This invitation was given, because the Chilenos had com- 
plained about the Araucanian way of execution. The mission- 
ary excused himself and sent a military officer in his stead, who 
was an eyewitness and reported as follows : 

"On the day appointed for the execution more than five 
hundred natives had come together, some sitting on the ground 
with crossed legs and others lying stretched out. Some time 
having transpired a loud voice was heard. It was the voice of 
the chief who ordered all that were present to form a circle in 
whose midst the shocking execution was to take place. When 
the circle was formed the chief and some others took their 
places in the center, and he addressed the people in the follow- 
ing words: 'As the diviner (of the Boroans) discovered the 
perpetratrix of the crime which caused the death of the young 
man and as the guilty is present, I consider it appropriate to 
have her come before me for the purpose of questioning her.' 
Thereupon he called a girl of sixteen years and asked her 
whether she was certain that she had poisoned the son of the 
cacique. 'Yes,' she answered with firmness. 'Did you know 
that you would forfeit your own life by committing such a 
crime?' T knew that,' she responded with equal decision and 
added that her mother had urged her to commit the deed. The 
mother also was called. She, however, knew by means of 
shrewdness and surprising unconcern how to make her judges 
believe that she was innocent. So they dismissed her. 

After this brief questioning they made the preparation for 
the execution. In the midst of the circle they erected two 



140 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



posts ill whose upper ends were openings. Then they put fire 
to piles of combustibles between the posts, undressed the girl, 
tied her feet and hands to a beam, lifted it up with the girl 
hanging down, and let the ends of the beam slide into the open- 
ings of the posts. Whilst now the flames strike the girl and 
her flesh is being roasted, those devils in human forms jump, 
dance, and frolic, they drink, laugh, and howl. After a while 
they push the burning pieces of wood aside. Is it to give the 
girl release from her sufferings, is it for the devilish intent of 
prolonging her tortures? But soon they apply the fire anew 
and apply it with greater intensity. The strength of the girl 
is vanishing gradually ; she finally breathes her last ; charred 
remains only were left. And those nearest her had neither 
heard sighs nor murmurings, had neither noticed expressions 
of pain nor utterances of distress. Oh, vigorous race that thus 
despiseth torture and death ! 

"The horrifying tragedy had come to a close, many natives 
had commenced to retire, when the mother of the victim forced 
her way through the crowd. Her whole body trembling, her 
clothes torn, her face pale, her mouth foaming, so she ap- 
proached the inhuman judge. With defying gestures, with a 
suppressed trembling voice, in disconnected stuttering expres- 
sions, she made these words ring into his ears : 'Listen ! I am 
guilty .... it was I who prepared the poison . . . the daugh- 
ter of my womb has suffered innocently I urged her 

to commit the crime, while she was not aware of what she was 
doing .... you wrested her from me ... . you burned her 
to ashes .... you will incur an equal fate in life !' While 
the chief was still listening, he called the scattering crowd 
back to pass sentence over the confession of the unfor- 
tunate mother. They returned in a great hurry. It seemed 
they were not yet satisfied, their passions for torture had rather 
been excited. The mother was likewise condemned to be 
burned. The details of the first tragedy were repeated and the 
crowd celebrated it with renewed savage howlings. When the 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



141 



barbaric spectacle had terminated the chief addressed the of- 
ficer in these words : 'Will you tell your people that the inno- 
cent are not always sentenced here and that we know how to 
execute justice better than they think.' " 

A PUBLIC FESTIVAL AND A LANDSCAPE. 

It was a delightful summer day in December when Mr. 
Treutler's expedition arrived at the large lake Calafquen, 
lying near the volcano Villa Rica. On the southern shore of 
the lake is a charming plain, on which the native village Trail- 
afquen lies, which counts but about one hundred inhabitants. 
The chief of the town, called Curinyano, a man advanced in 
years, of high, slender stature and a pleasing expression of 
face, greeted them heartily. After the customary salutations and 
the partaking of the signs of friendship, the presenting of gifts 
followed. In the evening a large number of natives came to 
salute the visitor and to persuade him of their friendly inten- 
tions. Mr. Treutler in turn presented them with handker- 
chiefs, cigarrettes etc. When all were in a cheerful mood 
they conversed with great animation, making Mr. Treutler im- 
portant communications. He told them *of the manners and 
customs of civilized people. When they had retired the chief 
told him that he would invite the whole vicinity in the morn- 
ing, so that he might introduce him to all the people as his 
good friend. 

The following morning dawned beautifully. The sky 
was dressed in purple blue ; nature appeared in gala. Fes- 
tive silence lay peacefully upon village and lake, upon forests 
and fields, upon mountains and plains. The morning sun sent 
its pure rays primarily to play upon the snowy tops of the near- 
by Andes, covering them with light and glory, and then sent 
them down to the lower levels to chase the dew from bushes 
and grasses and flowers. The vapors rose from the earth and, 
gathering into foggy clouds, encircled forests and mountain 
heights and then floated away with the soft breezes of the 



142 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



morning. Now, a world of semitropical vegetation unfolded 
its southern foliage, its changing beauty of colors, and covered 
valleys and plains and mountain sides as far as the eye could 
reach. The melodious voices of singing birds made music 
everywhere and even the Beauteous plumage of screaming 
birds contributed their part to make that morning festive. Yea, 
nature presenting a scene most gorgeous to behold, incited the 
visitor to the highest pitch of admiration. How wonderful 
are the works of our God ! But alas ! that enchanting scene of 
nature, filling the human soul with joy and delight in the morn- 
ing, had its counterpart in the dismal scenes of the evening, 
when human beings saddened the heart of our German friend. 
Schiller's words : 

"The world is perfect everywhere, 
Whither man does not come with his despair" 
may be truly applied to Araucania's plains. Curinyano had 
that morning ordered one of his mocetones to climb a really 
tall tree near his house, to summon the people with his pifulca. 
As they whistle on this instrument only when the inhabitants 
are called to arms, the people of Trailafquen believed an enemy 
to be in the neighborhood. Without delay one hundred and 
fifty robust lads, well mounted, appeared with their enormous 
lances to put themselves at the disposition of their cacique. 
These natives appeared more savage to Mr. Treutler than any 
he had seen so far. The upper parts of their bodies as far 
down as the hips were naked and their faces painted in very 
surprising manners. Some had both cheeks painted dark-red, 
others one cheek red and the other blue, still others had painted 
only one cheek and the nose. Many had bedaubed one side of 
the face only and almost all had drawn black circles around 
the eyes. As they had been called not to fight an enemy, but 
rather to enter into friendly relations with Mr. Treutler and 
his associates, they formed, as usually when they gather, a cir- 
cle near the house to settle some pending questions. The caci- 
que, Mr. Treutler, and his interpreter took places in the center. 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



143 



When the ceremonies of greeting were gone through, Mr. 
Treutler offered to the chiefs that were present whiskey, hand- 
kerchiefs, and tobacco, and to the common people cigarettes. 
To insure the Chilean government of their friendly intentions, 
they asked Sr. Mera, a Chilean officer of the expedition, to 
consider himself a judge in their judicial proceedings ; they 
would recognize his judgments as conclusive. When the of- 
ficer refused to act as judge, Curinyano himself insisted upon 
his accepting the offer as an evidence of trust and friendship. 
Then Officer Mera consented and spent about one hour in lis- 
tening to the complaints of the people and in passing judg- 
ments. They were mainly accusations which women brought 
against their husbands for maltreatments. The women wanted 
to get legal rights to leave them. When the trials had ended 
the people gave expression to their satisfaction by raising a 
general shout of approbation. 

Mr. Treutler had the intention of visiting the ruins of the 
town of Villa Rica lying at the foot of the volcano. At this 
place the Spaniards had in former times found much gold and 
the forefathers of these Araucanians had destroyed the town. 
On account of the blood shed there they had cursed the place, 
wherefore no Araucanians ventured to go into that vicinity. 
Still more. Because the Spaniards had brought great calam- 
ities over their people through greed after gold, they had aban- 
doned the use of all golden ornaments and had accepted the 
use of articles made of silver. Indeed, instead of golden, we 
find, at the present time, only silver ornaments in use through- 
out Araucania. — When Mr. Treutler's intention to visit the 
renowned mines of Villa Rica became known, a general mur- 
mur was started which grew more and more noisy and quar- 
relsome and accepted a dangerous aspect; for they became 
suspicious of Treutler's expedition, thinking that he pursued 
the object of spying out their country, so the Christians might 
conquer it. Through his interpreter, however, he succeeded to 
dispel the suspicion of hostile intentions. When they under- 



144 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



stood that the expeditionists only intended to look up the an- 
cient treasures forsaken by the Spaniards, they contended 
themselves and gave expression to their feelings by raising an 
infernal noise. In this Treutler and his men joined with a 
harrowing accompaniment of their instruments and with a re- 
port of their rifles. As the crowd was little or not at all famil- 
iar with firearms, the shooting caused a wild excitement. 
Some seemed to be rather dead than alive, not being able to 
understand what had happened, and turned their eyes with 
terrified looks hither and thither. Some kept standing in their 
positions as if grown tight, while others began to touch their 
bodies, apparently to find out whether they had been hurt. 
Still others had sufficient courage to approach and to examine 
the rifles with some carefulness. The complicated construc- 
tion they declared to be witchcraft. Only then their conster- 
nation left them completely when the instruments began to 
play anew. The music delighted them exceedingly, although 
the tunes were very discordant and offensive to civilized ears. 
This and a barrel of whiskey which Mr. Treutler had placed in 
the midst of the circle, now brought their good humor and de- 
light to the highest pitch. They circled closely around him to 
applaud him for the surprise he had brought about and ex- 
pressed the supposition that he very likely had ordered those 
rifles to be fired for the purpose of scaring the devil away and 
of creating a good understanding and mutual confidence among 
all present. Then they surrounded the whiskey barrel, dipped 
their fingers in and spattered some drops in the direction of 
Villa Rica to dedicate the liquor to great Pillan, whereupon 
the drinking began which was carried on all afternoon. How- 
ever, the most interesting part of the revelry was about to 
commence, when the sun had set in the west and the evening 
was ushering in from the east. For from the woods surround- 
ing the place a large number of females, to the great surprise 
of the crowd, suddenly sallied forth and with laughing faces 
surrounded the men's circle, playing uncivilized pieces on 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 145 




146 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



drums, pipes, and other barbaric instruments. They were 
dressed phantastically and around their eyes they had painted 
blue circles from which lines radiated in all directions. Y\ ith 
this increase the jolly revelry gained gigantic proportions. 
Xow and then one could see single natives still arrive, running 
about the circle towards the left and the right and greeting 
their acquaintances man for man singly, approaching every 
other one with a new word. 

Meanwhile night had come on. The thousand-fold voices 
of nature had grown silent. The enchanting scene of the 
morning had undergone a change, had turned pale, and dark- 
ness now enveloped it in black. By and by the moon's pale 
face rose above the Cordilleras, poured its silvery light over 
the landscape, and gigantic shadows were drawn behind the 
tall trees. In the midst of this nightly splendor the people con- 
tinued to enact scenes of saddening aspects ; for the revelry 
went on with undiminishing liveliness and excitement. Here 
fifty to sixty natives were sitting around a big fire, preparing 
Araucanian delicacies — roasts of mutton, of beef or pork; even 
a butchered colt should do honor to the occasion. There the 
ablest riders tried the least controllable, nevertheless smart 
horses. Everywhere the cider- jugs and whiskey horns made 
the rounds with the greatest rapidity. And those people intox- 
icated by drink, danced, they jumped, they sang and howled, 
they made a frightful racket in company with the unbearable 
sounds of the drums and fifes. But their dancing and jump- 
ing consisted in vehement turnings, in strange windings, in 
convulsive writhings. There was no harmony in their singing ; 
it was howling and likened the howling of wild animals rather 
than that of the human voice. They uttered sounds as only 
barbarians can utter them. Those adventurous figures, half 
naked, the faces painted with various colors and reddened with 
drinks, presented to our German friend a new^ original picture 
of life, such as solely aborigines can paint, a picture which in 
a religious heart awakens feelings of sadness and deepest sym- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 



147 



pathy. When he had gazed at this scene in the red glare of 
the fire and in the pale moonlight to his satisfaction and had 
repeatedly turned his attention to the wild cries and screams, 
he asked himself whether he still was in his sound senses or 
whether a troublesome nightmare had befallen him, whether 
he was among human beings or incarnate devils. What a 
deep degradation these Araucanians presented ! But even 
that dismal reality had an optimistic aspect. In all the noisy 
tumult of the scuffling men and the bustling women there oc- 
curred no quarrel, no fight, no exchange of words one with 
the other, even no discord of feelings. In their good under- 
standing and humor the barbarians had an enviable advantage. 
Among civilized people there would, at similar occasions, have 
happened something to disturb the general harmony. 

PREPARATIONS FOR A CAMPAIGN TO ARGENTINA. 

At the festival just described a number of Indians from 
the Argentine pampas, called Pehuenches, were present. They 
associated brotherly with the Araucanians, standing in friendly 
relations with them. This visit which will have been one of 
many, points towards an intimate relation between the two 
peoples, living west and east of the Andes. The fact that 
there existed a close friendship between the Chilean Arauca- 
nians and the Argentine Pehuenches, a friendship doubtless 
based upon tribal relations, this fast is proved by a military 
campaign which various Araucanian tribes undertook to the 
far east. 

On the Atlantic coast south of Buenos Aires chief Yenqui- 
tru had been killed in a raid he had made in the territory of 
the white settlers. To avenge his death, the pampas Indians 
made preparations far and wide; the Argentine fort Carmen 
was to be stormed. The Araucanians had been asked to assist 
and were eagerly preparing for that campaign when Mr. 
Treutler visited them. They were fabricating enormous lan- 
ces and making laquis by rolling round stones in the one end 



148 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of long, warmed leather straps, which while getting cold drew 
tightly together. The women dried beef, prepared flour and 
other necessaries for the long march across the continent. 
They also made preparations for the case of defeat, by mixing 
poisons and narcotics which their men and sons should take 
against their own lives if defeated, to escape the revenge of 
the victor. 

While these military preparations were going on an in- 
cident occurred which shows how the Araucanians trace daily 
happenings to the interventions of their gods. Namely, the 
campaign horse of chief Lumunao took sick. As he and all 
the inhabitants of his district viewed therein a fatal omen, he 
resolved that none of his subjects take part in the pending 
campaign ; for Pillan did not show himself favorable to the 
undertaking, as shown in the sickness of his horse. 

A few days later a great agitation could be seen in the 
village of Pitrufquen. Towards noon armed natives came and 
went everywhere, some on horseback, others on foot. It was 
the day of mobilization. Wives parted from their husbands, 
mothers from their sons, sisters from brothers, and all as if 
they would never see them again. There was much weeping 
and sobbing, much cordiality and sincerity, there were many 
embracings and Marri-Marris. More than 2(300 warriors were 
under arms. In the evening the march began to the distant 
Atlantic coast. 

2. INDIANS OF THE PAMPAS. 

The natives who live on the Argentine pampas east of the 
Andes, entertained friendly relations with the Araucanians, 
as we have seen; and these in turn assisted them in times of 
trouble. We attribute these relations to tribal ties. To- 
wards the south the Andes grow lower, the passes consequent- 
ly become more frequent. From Araucania comfortable moun- 
tain passes lead to Argentina, through which in modern times 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 149 



a lively intercourse is maintained by the white people. Through 
them a mutual relation of the natives will have been kept up 
since a remote period. No convincing argument can be ad- 
vanced against the conclusion that the Pehuenches, the Penks, 
and other tribes of the pampas as well as the Tsonekes of Pat- 
agonia are in racial relation with the Araucanians. They be- 
long with these to the Malay aborigines of South America. 
The pampas were peopled from Araucania ; eastward the 
stream of the first immigration flowed. 

In beautiful, rich, homelike Araucania the people natur- 
ally directed their attention to the raising of some grains and 
vegetables and of some stock. Thereby occasion was given to 
erect dwellings, although rudimentary and very plain dwell- 
ings, and to observe a degree of domestic and public order, 
whereby praiseworthy qualities, yes virtues, were maintained 
and promoted. In consequence of this we found in Araucania 
a semblance of civilization, although no solid buildings, no in- 
dustry, no art. On the extensive, naked, inhospitable pampas, 
however, the tribes who wandered thither roamed from place 
to place, like the North American Indians, did not think of 
tilling the soil, lived from nature's products, and grew still 
wilder. 

In the following we bring what a historian of Argentina, 
Mariano A. Pelliza says in his book : "El pais de las pampas," 
the country of the prairies, about the natives and their manner 
of living. The wandering life made it necessary for the na- 
tives to seek their food as the various seasons offered it. In 
the summer they chose the banks of rivers and lived from 
fishes which they caught. In the fall they retired to the for- 
ests to catch some species of birds and to pick the fruit of 
the corob and other wild growing fruits which lavish nature 
prepared for them. The corob is the locust tree on which 
brown, glossy pods, 4 to 8 inches long, grow, containing a 
fleshy nourishing pulp, which the natives used for food and 
for making a liquor. The meat of fishes they dried in the 



150 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



sun, and by pounding it they made fish meal. In the tropical 
regions of the north the natives gathered some roots and stored 
them up for the short winter. Corn, which tribes of the 
Aimares raised in certain parts of Peru and Paraguay and ex- 
ported to the pampas, furnished chicha and mote, i. e. boiled 
corn. Drinks they also prepared from fruits which they 
picked from forest trees. The flesh of deer they dried in the 
sun to obtain charqui, i. e. dried meat, which kept a very long 
time. 

The lazy, loitering Indian moved only when he had to seek 
food or was obliged to go to war. His clothing consisted of 
a woolen blanket which he fastened around the waist with a 
girdle on which ostrich feathers fluttered. The women in the 
torrid regions spun and wove wild cotton to make shirts. The 
tribes in the colder south trapped guanacos from whose furs, 
having sewn them skillfully, they made blankets with which 
they protected themselves against the cold. The thick, long, 
stiff, loose, greased hair they fastened with leather straps, cut 
from the hides of animals. The feet they wrapped up in wool- 
ly skins in the winter. The dwelling of the Indian was a mis- 
erable hut which he could lay apart or put together, wherever 
and whenever he cared to. It consisted of four sticks, which, 
tied together in pairs, were stuck in the ground, and a cross- 
beam which connected the pairs. Two skins or branches of 
trees served as roof and walls. As an example of the mental 
condition of the Indian and the deterioration of his mind the 
fact may serve that he entered his hut not uprightly as a man 
who is conscious of the dignity of his person, but crawled into 
it on all fours, to stretch out on the pile of filth that served 
him for a resting place. He neither had an opinion about the 
present, nor a remembrance of the past, nor a plan or hope for 
the future. The pampas Indian who supported himself mea- 
gerly, was neither economical nor temperate through convic- 
tion; his economy was the result of his poverty, not of his 
volition. Had he a good supply of provisions he filled himself to 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 151 



excess. Had he liquor at his disposal, he drank till he fell 
down from intoxication. Had he neither anything to eat nor 
to drink, then he chewed roots to kill the time and not to 
starve. Such is the dry, colorless picture which Sr. Pilliza 
gives us of the natives of his country. It does not contain any 
traits of the enterprising, industrious, history making Aimares 
of Peru ; it looks like a caricature of the Chilean Araucanians. 

3. THE PATAGONIANS AND FIRELANDERS. 

The sketch of the Pampas-Indians is a sketch of the Pat- 
agonians too ; they are similar, almost alike.- The Patagonians 
live on the cold, bleak plains which extend from the river 
Negro south to the straits of Magellan. Let the reader notice 
that Patagones is the name which their European discoverers 
gave them. When in the year 1520 Magellan, a Portuguese 
mariner in Spanish services, spent the winter in the bay of San 
Julian, where the seamen came in touch with the natives of the 
vicinity, they noticed that their feet were wrapped up in furs 
and therefore appeared to be exceedingly large. On account 
of their large, clumsy feet the Portuguese called them Pata- 
gones, i. e. large-footed men. They called themselves Tson- 
ekes and Tehuelches. 

A report of Naval-officer Chaworth is at our disposal in 
this connection. Mr. Chaworth lived among the Tehuelches 
one year in Indian costume and associated with all their chiefs 
and tribes. Pie did not hear them give any proper name of a 
god. Making inquiries as regards their religious belief, he 
was told that "a great spirit" is somewhere in existence who 
is good, but does not care much for men. These in turn do not 
mind him, but only take notice of the evil spirits, the Guali- 
chus, to guard them off. In case of a dangerous sickness a 
nightly sham fight with clashing of arms and explosives is 
fought against those spirits. Each camp has its own camp- 
gualichu, other spirits haunt forests, rivers, rocks and must, 



152 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



when one approaches the place, be made inoffensive by means 
of salutations and conjurations. At each birth and at each 
important good or evil event animal or human blood, obtained 
through scratching or bleeding, is sacrificed to the gualichus. 
To the sorcerer the gualichus appear in the forms of animals, 
guanacos, pumas, ostriches, eagles etc. He seeks to drive the 
evil spirit out of the sick by means of calling conjuring words 
out to the person, or by sucking his blood, and in other ways. 
— Piles of stones are heaped upon the graves of the dead. 
They live in monogamy, seldom in bigamy. They marry by 
choosing for themselves, show true conjugal love and love to 
children. When the wife dies, the husband burns all his be- 
longings. ■ — Their chiefs are called gamaks and are addressed 
by the word father. Idols they have none. Sayings, songs, 
and prayers which recently some older persons still knew, are 
now entirely forgotten. This indicates a tendency that is lead- 
ing to still lower degradation. Also with the Tehuelches who 
lived free and independent there is no trace of evolution no- 
ticeable. The only tradition Mr. Chaworth met was the say- 
ing that the great spirit had created animals in a cave and led 
them upon a hill from which he scattered them over the earth. 
This elevation is still pointed out as the "god-hill." — Among 
the 1500 Tehuelches that are left from Patagonia's aborigines 
the curses of drinking and gambling prevail. Their number 
constantly decreases through combats among themselves and 
with neighboring tribes, and through smallpox. In the man- 
ner of living and in customs as well as in good dispositions 
they resemble their northern neighbors and the Araucanians ; 
they all are of the Malay type. 

The Firelanders who live south of the straits of Magellan, 
are nothing but a section of Tehuelches, driven still farther 
south. They keep up a lively intercourse with the Tehuelches 
of the continent and lead in the icy cold a wretched existence. 
Their proper name is Pecherahs and has a beautiful signifi- 
cance, for it means friends. Living in the southernmost part 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 153 




154 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of South America, they belong to the most southern dwellers 

of our globe. 

4. ORIGIN OF SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES. 

The course of history thus far pursued has shown that 
Primitive South America counted among her inhabitants a 
primeval race, a race distinguished from the Mongolian Incas, 
from the Ancient Peruvians and their descendants, from the 
Chibchas and the African tribes. To this conclusion we were 
led on the one hand by the traditions of the Old Peruvians 
and the Chibchas that their forefathers had found human be- 
ings at their immigration, and on the other hand. by the facts 
that the first inhabitants of Peru, of Chile, of Argentina were 
entirely unacquainted with the masonry and industrial works 
of the Mongolians and not yet corrupted by the vices of those 
races. This primeval race we call the aborigines of South 
America. They were of Malay origin and must have overrun 
a large section of the continent already at a very early period. 

Whither did they come? The Araucanian language, the 
only one considered briefly, has surprising similarity with the 
Malay language ; for it owes its intrinsic construction, its 
grammatical make-up, and poetic swing to Java's literary lan- 
guage, to the ancient Kawi. Mr. Ellis met with many words 
of New Zealand in Araucania. According to the same inves- 
tigator the original poncho of the Araucanians resembles ex- 
actly the tiputa of the Tahitians. The author of this work 
lived three years in Angol, the Chilean capital and military 
post of Araucania. Observing the Araucanians I was unin- 
tentionally often impressed with the thought that they have 
an Asiatic type, but neither the particular Chinese nor the Jap- 
anese type. They are of Malay origin, but bear a Mongolian 
semblance. Aimares have, as Dr. Ebrard judges correctlv, 
settled among them and introduced polygamy and the name 
of god Pillan. Their ancient name Cubu for god, their beau- 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 155 



tiful language, their customs and weapons are of Malayan 
derivation. 

How did Malays reach Chile's coast? Malays have, as is 
now admitted, peopled the entire insular world of the southern 
Pacific ocean. Formerly the objection was raised that an un- 
civilized people could not navigate in their light boats from 
one island or group of islands to another and settle on the 
islands, dispersed throughout an immense ocean. But the 
people were not so uncivilized or their boats so light. Since 
a long time, however, it has been proven that the inhabitants of 
all those islands, from the Malay peninsula to the Easter is- 
lands, scattered over a distance of 2400 miles from west to 
east, speak languages which are closely related to one another 
and which, consequently, belong to one and the same group of 
languages, the Malayan group. This proves the tribal relation 
of those islanders and their common descent. 

Dr. Ebrard gathered much valuable information on the 
activity of the Malays from which we extract the following. 
The Malays must, already in remote times, have been a very 
seafaring nation. The fame of being daring and skillful sail- 
ors they have, in fact, maintained on the East India or Sunda 
islands up to the present day. When Mr. Cook, 1728 to 1729, 
made his celebrated voyages, the inhabitants of the Tongo, 
Figi, and New Elebrides islands lived in lively intercourse with 
one another. Cook and Forster received from a native of the 
Society islands a sort of chart on which were drawn the Mar- 
quesas, Tahiti, Samoa, and Fiji islands. On the same island 
Forster came in touch with a native who was able to name 
more than eighty islands within a distance of three hundred 
geographical miles ; he having visited the most of them him- 
self. Still in 1824 the inhabitants of Anaa undertook trips to 
Tahiti, three hundred miles distant. When the Portuguese, 
in the 16th century, came to the Malayan islands for the first 
time, they found Menang-Kabu to be the staple port of an 
extensive trade, carried on towards the east and the west, and 



156 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



to have a naval power such as in Europe none existed at that 
time. One of the fleets consisted of ninety vessels, of which 
twenty-five were large galleys. A second fleet was composed 
of three hundred vessels, eighty of which carried a cargo of 
four hundred tons each. A third fleet of five hundred vessels 
carried a crew of six thousand men. Historic reports relate 
that in the 12th and 13th centuries a mighty Malay sea and 
commercial nation was in existence, with Singapore as capital. 
Chinese history leads still farther back in the past. Already 
417 to 418 A. D. Chinese sailors found a civilized state on the 
island of Java. — The fleets mentioned are not any more in 
existence; navigation declined. Here also an effectual de- 
cline, a decaying, is noticeable ; not a rising evolution. The 
internal causes of decline were of a religious-moral nature. 
In the period of the Malay's highest development and most 
flourishing sea trade, their language and the Kawi literature 
flourished; a remnant of that language we found among the 
Araucanians, the aborigines of Chile. The Europeans found 
the Malayan islanders as a race doomed to destruction ; the 
process of deterioration had begun long before the arrival of 
the white people. — If we now ask the question, what means 
had those islanders at their disposal to find their course on the 
high seas, having neither compass nor instruments of obser- 
vation ; then the Owaians still today have the tradition that 
their forefathers made long journeys with large fleets and 
directed their course by observing the stars. Another means 
to set the sailor right on the sea are the sea birds. Following 
their flight the marines will surely reach a shore. Then also 
the vessels of the Polynesians, though they were small as com- 
pared with our ships, were ingeniously constructed for the 
high-going billows ; for they were protected against capsizing 
by means of poys. 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 157 



CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PRIMITIVE 
SOUTH AMERICA. 

Thus far we have retraced the historic events of Primitive 
South America, going from the Incas backward to the Abori- 
gines, a period of 3000 years. In the following brief survey, 
however, we follow the current of events chronologically. 

The strictly grammatical and poetic language of the Arau- 
canians is a relic of the Kawi, i. e. of Java's literary and poetic 
language, which flourished on the island of Java in the time of 
the first Christian centuries and from there spread its cultivat- 
ing influence over the seafaring, commercial islanders of the 
Southern Pacific. The Araucanians must have come to Amer- 
ica in the flourishing period of their race. Others had pre- 
ceded since a long period and had settled down in the territor- 
ies towards the north and the east. It is likely that the Malay 
immigration into South America lasted many centuries, that 
continent having become the terminus of the voyages of the 
South Sea islanders. For when the Japanese immigrated into 
Peru 100 A. D., the national god of those aborigines, god Con, 
had held sway over the Andes already 1000 years. They 
had then already sunken into decay. In remote antiquity 
then the first Malays must have come to Chile, to Peru, 
to Colombia, and to the eastern slopes beyond the Andes 
From the west coast of the continent they will have, in 
troops, overrun the pampas of the south and penetrated 
into the selvas of the center. Dr. Ebrard, for other rea- 
sons, fixes the arrival of the first Malays between 1400 and 
1600 B. C. According to this view South America began to 
be peopled at the time the Israelites wandered in the Arabian 
desert. 

Fifteen hundred years the Malay tribes had lived in South 
America, had in this long period gained little or nothing for 
themselves from the new world, having impressed upon it 
only a few signs of their existence, had rather given way to 



158 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the strenuous natural forces, had deteriorated, and grown 
wild ; when the Japanese immigrants arrived a century after 
Christ These penetrated into Colombia and Peru and un- 
folded, in the period of eleven hundred years, that enormous 
activity which gave the plateau of the Andes a new aspect. 
Agriculture, industry, and the art of building flourished ; Pach- 
acamac was the national god; eighty kings are said to have 
followed in the government. Prosperity there also gendered 
luxuriousness, a vicious mode of living which gnawed at the 
very vitals of the nation. The Ancient Peruvians declined, 
deteriorated, decayed religiously, morally, politically. Pacha- 
camac became an idol ; the people separated into sections and 
tribes, and turned against one another. In the mean time 
groups had branched off and traveled in almost all directions, 
many into Brazil's tropical forests. About 600 A. D. African 
sea robbers drifted to South America's northern shores ; and 
possibly a little later Congo negroes were carried to the coast 
of Brazil. In Brazil's gigantic forests Asiatic Mongols and 
African negroes met. Thousands of years previous, their 
progenitors had wandered away from the common homeland 
of Mesopotamia in exactly opposite directions, carrying with 
them the reminiscences. 4 

About the middle of the 13th century when the Ancient 
Peruvians had reached a very low degree of decay, the Chinese 
Incas arrived and began their reformatory work among the 
Aimares. Within three centuries they subdued the entire ta- 
ble-lands of the Andes, establishing a grand empire. The noble 
work of the benevolent Incas had hardly been carried to a 
finish, when the Spaniards came in 1532 and demolished it. 
According to modern views South America's history began 
only with the Spanish conquests, while in reality it had its be- 
ginning three thousand years earlier. 

Primitive South America does not favor evolutionary 
theories, but substantiates the accounts of Genesis. The care- 
ful reader will have noticed the downward tendencies, the 



SOUTH AMERICA'S ABORIGINES 159 



degrading forces that were at work in all the tribes, peoples, 
and kingdoms of Primitive South America. Everywhere we 
had to record a decline from a belief in an invisible god to 
idolatry and oracles ; from higher intellectual powers to stu- 
pidity; from constructive and imbellishing ability to incom- 
petency; from abler, purer lives to vices, cruelties, barbar- 
ism. The theories of evolution can not be applied to the his- 
tory we have gone through; namely the theories that man 
developed from low beginnings to higher ability, to nobler 
form, or that the aborigines were indigenous to the native soil, 
i. e. had originated from animal life, say from monkeys. In 
the mind of man, in his study, such theories may arise and 
seem to be the correct ones ; the history of primitive humanity, 
however, disproves them. History teaches that all the abori- 
gines of South America immigrated. 3500 years ago there 
was not yet a human being on that continent. The routes of 
their wanderings we have traced; the first came from the 
Southern Pacific islands, the others from Mongolian countries 
and Africa. Primitive South America does not support the 
mentioned theories of evolution. 

It, however, substantiates teachings of the Bible. The 
Bible teaches the descent of mankind from one common parent- 
age, teaches its unity. The routes of the wanderings of the 
Primitive South Americans point westward and eastward, they 
point to the old world. Those wanderers all brought relig- 
ious traditions, sayings of a deluge and of creation. Is it not 
remarkable that the Ancient Peruvians, the Chibchas, the 
Araucanians had such sayings, sayings of a deluge which god 
sent because men were disobedient, a deluge out of which three 
men only were saved ? These traditions are re-echoes of the ac- 
counts of Genesis. The forefathers of Moses and the progeni- 
tors of the South Americans were all descendants of Noah, the 
hero of the Bible. Thus we find the history and traditions of 
the primitive ^inhabitants of South America to be testimonies to 
the biblical teachings of the oneness of the human family. 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




A GUANACO 
whose wool the natives spun, whose skin they wore 



DIVISION II 
MEDIEVAL SOUTH AMERICA 

IjOO to 1810 



I6i 



edieval South America we term that divisioii of our his- 



V ^ tory which was introduced by the Spanish conquests and 
continued during the colonial times. It ushered in with the 16th 
century and came to a close when the revolution of independence 
broke out in 1S10, lasting 300 years. In the first period of this 
division the capitals and other principal cities of the various 
countries were founded. 

The South American middle age is characterized by shock- 
ing brutalities and the feudal system, by the dominating spirit 
of the Roman clergy and the peninsular Spaniards, by the mo- 
nopoly of agriculture and commerce, and by the absence of in- 
dustry, of public schools, of books and printing establishments. 
Stagnation everywhere, modern progress nowhere. 

The dark age of the southern continent is related in our 
fourth and fifth periods. 




162 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION II 



Medieval South America 



PAGE 

161—288 



PERIOD IV. 



Discoveries and Conquests, 1499 to 1618 A. D. 



166 — 223 



PAGE 

1. New Granada 167 

Bartholomew Columbus . . .167 

Hejeda 167 

Balboa discovers the Pacific . 168 
Davila, his antagonist . . . .170 

Panama's beginning 172 

Governor de Lerrr.a 173 

The Heredias and Cesar . . .175 
Expeditions to the Chibchas . 177 

Quito conquered 178 

Quezada conquers the Chibchas 178 

Marshal Bogata 178 

Ramiriqui 178 

Ancient temple burned . . . .180 

Founding of Bogata 182 

George Robledo . 183 

Lugo, a courtier 184 

Spanish cruelties 186 

Judge de Armendariz . . . .186 
Audiencia established . . . .189 

2. Venezuela 190 

Naming of the country . . .190 

John de Amnues 190 

Coro founded 190 

The Welzer company 190 

Von Hutton's exploit" . . . .191 

J. P. Toloza . 194 

Caracas founded 194 

3. Peru, Discovery and Conquest of 195 

F. Pizarro and his companions 195 
Atahualpa's capture, ransom. 

trial, death 199 

Inca revolution 201 

Civil war begins 202 

Almagro discovers Chile . . . 202 

Lima founded 203 

Almagro's death 203 

Discovery of the Amazon . . . 204 
F. Pizarro assassinated .... 206 
Young Almagro 206 



PAGE 

Chile, Conquest of 208 

Peter de ' Valdivia 208 

Founding of Santiago 208 

How the natives were treated 209 

The young colony in distress. 210 

Help from Peru 210 

Concepcion founded 211 

Araucanians rise 211 

Valdivia's defeat and death . 211 
Villagran defeated . . . .212 

Lautaro's death 212 

Young Mendoza 212 

Caupolican's cruel execution . 213 

Villagran governor 213 

The La Plata Regions . . . .214 
Who named America? .... 214 

Diaz de Solis 214 

Magellan's great voyage . . .215 

Gabot 215 

Asuncion founded 217 

Irala, the leader 218 

Buenos Aires founded definite- 
ly . . ' 218 

Hernandarias governor .... 220 
Uruguay 220 

Brazil, Discovery and Conquest 

of 221 

Who discovered Brazil? . .221 

Thomas de Sousa 222 

Huegenottes in Brazil .... 222 

Men de Saa 223 

Founding of Rio de Janeiro . 223 



163 



164 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION II 



PERIOD V. 



Colonial Times, 1544 to 1S21 A. D 

PAGE 

Ptru as Colony 225 

Nunyez de Vela 225 

Encomienda and mita .... 226 

Peter de La Gasca 227 

Inca revolution . . * 230 

Tribunal of Inquisition . . . 230 

Monopoly of commerce . . . .231 

The richest colony 232 

Pirates and earthquakes . . 233 

Area of Peru 234 

Peru's colonial life 235 

The Chilean Colony 236 

Araucanian wars 236 

Parliaments with the Araucan- 

ians 238 

Earthquakes 240 

A poor colony . . . . . . . 240 

Jesuits expelled 241 

Don Ambrose O'Higgins . . 241 

Colonial laws and life .... 242 

Spanish despotism 242 

Ruinous monopoly 247 

Population 248 

Social distinctions 249 

Essence of colonial life . . . 250 

Colonial Times of New Granada . 252 

The Audiencia manages . . . 252 

Montanyo's mismanagement . 252 

The golden period 254 

Pirates; pillaging 255 

Disastrous administration . . .256 

Three years of quarrels . . . 256 

A Castilian hero .... . . 257 

A British attack 259 



PAGE 

224 to 288 

PAGE 



Zerda's administration .... 260 

Jesuits expelled 260 

Injustice causes an uprising . 261 

An archbishop-viceroy .... 265 
The French revolution disturbs 

the colony 267 

The last viceroy .' 269 

Colonial Times of Venezuela . . 270 

Conspirators 270 

Francisco de Miranda .... 271 

The La Plata Colonics 273 

A great missionary enterprise. 2y- 

Mamelukes 275 

Difficulties with the Portuguese 276 

Sacramento Colony 276 

Founding of Montevideo . . . 277 

Expulsion of the Jesuits . . 278 

Ceballos, the first viceroy . . 278 

M. Belgrano 278 

English invasions defeated . . 278 

Tames Liniers 281 

The last viceroy 281 

Committee of seven .... 282 

Brazil as Colony 283 

Philip II 283 

Dutch in Brazil 283 

French in Brazil 284 

Magnificent colony . . . .285 

Reforms introduced ..... 286 

The Three Guianas 287 

British .• 287 

Dutch 287 

French 28S 



1 



ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION II 

PAGE 



A guanaco 160 

Vasco Nunyes de Balboa 169 

Gonzalo J. de Quezada 179 

Climbing the Andes in a downpour 205 

Antique bridge 207 

Tilting stone 282 



165 



PERIOD IV 

DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 

1499 to 1618 



166 



fl 



DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF NEW GRANADA. 



hristopher Columbus, having concluded his fourth 



voyage to the new world in 1502, made explorations 
in company with his brother Bartholomew on the northern 
coast of South America. Christopher returned to Spain in 
1504, while his brother endeavored to found a colony with 
eighty men near the mouth of the river Belen. The natives 
were kind until Columbus attempted to make them feel his 
superiority and to bring them into subjection. For this pur- 
pose he seized their chief and his family, detaining them in one 
of his vessels. In spite of the vigilance of the Spaniards the 
chief succeeded to escape by plunging into the sea and swim- 
ming to the shore. The rest of the family was one morning 
found dead, having preferred death to slavery. On account of 
this rash and unjust deed of Bartholomew Columbus, the na- 
tives became indignant and, attacking the colony in large num- 
bers, forced the strangers to leave their coast who being re- 
duced in number left for Jamaica. Those natives were the 
Carinas. 

In 1510, Sr. Mejeda made an attempt to establish a colony 
on the northern shore. He laid the plans for a city and called 
the place San Sebastian. Here also the natives who were very 
warlike attacked repeatedly, reduced the Spanish establish- 
ments to ashes, and drove the intruders with losses from their 
shores. In these combats two men distinguished themselves 
who later became prominent: Vasco Nunyez de Balboa, who 
discovered the Pacific at Panama, and Francisco Pizarro, the 
conqueror of Peru. 

In spite of recent disasters and losses the Spaniards made 



1502 to 1350. 




167 



168 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



up their minds again to establish themselves on the coast. 
They took some territory from the natives who lived on the 
golf of Darien and founded a town they called Antigua del 
Darien. The genius and courage of Balboa gave him prestige 
among his companions, and they declared him their leader. 
Balboa entered into friendly relations with a number of native 
chiefs and received 4000 castilians worth of metal and also 
other gifts from them. Treasures which the Spaniards re- 
ceived or stole from the natives, they divided among them- 
selves. When at a certain distribution they quarreled, Pan- 
quiaco, the oldest son of a chief, rebuked their avarice and 
told them that if it were gold they wanted, they could find it 
in large quantities beyond the mountains of the south. There 
they would find another sea and on its shores nations of white 
men, who wear elegant dresses. To the dark Carinas the Pe- 
ruvians may have looked white. This intimation was the first 
notice which Balboa obtained about the sea of the south, i. e. 
the Pacific Ocean. He resolved to discover it, but was obliged 
to wait till the season permitted the undertaking. 

September 1st, 1513, Balboa started with 190 Spaniards and 
1000 friendly natives to find the unknown sea. Fighting their 
way through the isthmus of Panama, they scaled the mountains 
and in the forenoon of September 25th they beheld the bound- 
less ocean in the distance towards the south. On the elevation 
where they stood they erected a pyramid of stones on whose 
top Balboa planted a cross and a flag of Castilia. Then the 
expedition divided into three sections, which were commanded 
by Alonzo Martin, Francisco Pizarro, and Balboa respectively, 
to make the march down to the sea, a march of two or three 
days. Each section took a separate route, Balboa reaching 
the shores last. He entered the water and in the name of the 
king of Spain took possession of the vast expanse, which he 
called South Sea. Then they started back on their return trip, 
again taking different routes. Conquering two more chiefs and 
taking their treasures, they returned to Antigua del Darien, 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 




VASGO NUNYEZ DE BALBOA 
The Discoverer of the Pacific 



170 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



heavily laden with gold and covered with fame. The colonists 
of that place celebrated the triumphs of their leader and the 
great discovery. Balboa immediately dispatched Peter Arbo- 
lancha to Spain to make announcement of the discovery to the 
Spanish Court where the achievement was likewise celebrated. 
Balboa received many honors and the title of adelantado which 
entitled him to the position of a governor. 

Unfortunately, Pedr arias Davila had already been ap- 
pointed governor of the region which the Spaniards had ex- 
plored and had left Spain with his expedition April, 1514. This 
man was a fair example of the Spanish courtiers who played 
an interesting role in the South American history. Davila 
wanted to land at Santa Marta, but the natives opposed him 
with such desperate resistance that he was obliged to desist 
from landing. Opposed by winds, he finally sailed for An- 
tigua where Balboa was thatching his house when the expe- 
dition appeared. Various of the colonists advised him to resist 
with force; but Balboa refused to listen to such insinuations 
and he with all his people went to the shore to receive the new 
governor. Davila began his duties by taking steps against Bal- 
boa. First he put his residence up for sale, then he pondered 
how to take all duties and honors from him and how to make 
him to be forgotten. He forced him to pay a few thousand 
dollars to Enciso, whose belongings he himself had embarked. 
Davila ordered his officers to scour the country in search of 
gold for the purpose of paying salaries. With this innovation 
the time of blood and pillage began. John de Ayora was 
placed at the head of the gold-seekers. To keep the contracts 
the chiefs had made with Balboa, they received Ayora kindly, 
but he made use of this native kindness to plunder them the 
more thoroughly. Chief Tumanama, indignant at such felony, 
attacked Ayora and his company with a great force, obliging 
them to fortify themselves. The Spaniards had started to 
build a town, but the natives one night burned the beginnings. 

As the colonists of Antigua murmured on account of the 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 171 



inactivity and forgetfulness in which Balboa was kept, Davila 
ordered him to explore the river Grande in search of the treas- 
ury of Dabaibe. The natives living along the river were very 
warlike and, surprising Balboa and his expedition, defeated 
him completely. Only after great hardships was Balboa, 
wounded and badly treated, able to return to Antigua. — Then 
Davila sent Caspar Morales out on a new expedition, with 
Penyalosa as subaltern. Morales conquered the chief who des- 
perately opposed him, but could not follow out his advantages, 
because Penyalosa needed his assistance; for the depredations 
of the latter had caused the whole district in which he had pil- 
laged, to revolt. Morales having joined his force with that of 
his subaltern, invited all the chiefs to a peaceful interview. 
They came in good faith with their escorts, but Morales treach- 
erously made all the chiefs prisoners. Thereupon they at- 
tacked the escorting natives and butchered 700 of them. The 
eighteen imprisoned chiefs were devoured by dogs. Such bar- 
barous cruelty caused the war-cry to be raised throughout that 
territory. All the tribes responded and united to take revenge. 
From now on Morales and his men were desperately attacked 
and forced to a horrible retreat. For, being constantly sur- 
rounded by numerous enemies, who replaced one another 
ceaselessly, they had not a moment of rest. Lost in that terri- 
tory and without guides, they were forced to forsake a large 
part of the treasures they had taken. At last a few were so 
fortunate as to reach Antigua, being living examples of the 
bloody system Davila had instituted. 

The expeditions brought many native prisoners to Anti- 
gua. Although the instructions of the king prescribed that 
they be treated with consideration and be accorded full liberty, 
Davila sent them to Santo Domingo where they were sold as 
slaves. Though the bishop protested against this injustice, his 
accusations at the Court were futile ; for the high patronage 
which the governor enjoyed, was of more effect than the jus- 
tice of the cause which the humane prelate advocated. 



172 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The colonists continued to express dissatisfaction with 
the government of Davila and to exhibit love towards Balboa. 
This circumstance excited the governor's envy. It was then 
that Balboa obtained the oft sought permission to undertake 
an expedition in the South Sea. Accompanied by eighty men 
who followed him voluntarily, he led the expedition across the 
isthmus to fort Acla where they stayed some time to cut lumber 
for vessels. This they floated down the river Balsas to the 
Sea, where they built two vessels in which they purposed to 
explore the coast. When Davila heard that Balboa was about 
to set sail the old envy revived in his heart and tormented him. 
For the sake of this motive he resolved to destroy his rival and 
sent emissaries after him who should call him back to Acla 
where he would give him his final instructions. As soon as 
Balboa appeared before Davila, the latter ordered F. Pizarro 
to perform the sad duty of laying him in chains. Davila ac- 
cused Balboa to have the intention of making the countries he 
might discover independent, made the disposition to try him, 
and in writing ordered judge Espinosa to condemn him to 
death. Balboa protested constantly against the evil accusa- 
tions and maintained his innocence. It was in vain. Useless 
also was the interest which the colonists exhibited to save him. 
His destruction being determined, Balboa had to go to the 
gallows (1514). Such was the sad end of the discoverer of 
the Pacific. History keeps him in high regard and Pedrarias 
Davila is known as the executioner. 

The town of Panama consisted up to 1518 only of a num- 
ber of irregularly built houses. In that year Governor Davila 
resolved to found a city on the Pacific and he chose the loca- 
tion of Panama. The colonists of Antigua de Darien were 
unwilling to follow the governor to that place, being at vari- 
ance with him. Only when in 1519 the order came from the 
Spanish Court to transplant the civil government and the epis- 
copal seat to Panama, the inhabitants of Antigua relinquished 
their opposition and moved to the new city on the Pacific. 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



173 



Panama is the only town that continued to exist of those 
that had been founded up to the year 1519 and is the oldest 
city in Spanish South America. 

Once established in Panama, nothing was undertaken in 
the line of discovery and conquest until in 1525 Francisco 
Pizarro conceived the notion to explore the sea his ill-fated 
friend, Balboa, had discovered. He communicated his thought 
to Captain Diego de Almagro and to Hernando de Luque who 
was a clerical. The three agreed to sign a contract in virtue 
of which the first two should undertake to explore new lands, 
while the latter should raise $20,000 which they believed to be 
necessary for the undertaking. The expedition thus initiated 
resulted in the discovery of Peru, as we shall relate at the 
proper place. 

While Pizarro and his men sailed south, other expedi- 
tioners arrived at the northern coast and made their way into 
the interior to make explorations. Out of a number of these 
we shall mention Bastidas only, who observed a kind and hu- 
mane way of proceeding with the natives, as he believed that 
thus he could gain their good will. Thereby, however, he 
made cruel enemies among his men, for these wanted to enrich 
themselves by depredations. Not being able to satisfy their 
avarice, they overpowered Bastidas at a time when he was 
sick and stabbed him. When at his cries Rodrigo Palomino 
came to his aid, the would-be assassins fled. They were ap- 
prehended and sent to Santo Domingo, where they were tried 
and executed. Bastidas entrusted the command to Palomino, 
went to Cuba for his recovery, but died of his wounds at his 
arrival. In a later expedition Palomino lost his life, drowning 
in a river which was named after him. 

The Spanish Court entrusted the government to Garcia 
de Lerma and gave him explicit instructions in regard to the 
natives. The explorers were prohibited to reduce them to 
slavery and all those who had been sent to the West Indian 
islands should be brought back to their native villages. These 



174 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



instructions were kept on paper and were never carried out, 
just as those which former Governor Davila had brought. 
The Court even sent Thomas Ortiz in the capacity of an- offi- 
cial protector of the natives, but neither his constant reclama- 
tions availed anything. As far as the Spanish Court is con- 
cerned, they were not guilty of the cruelties and of the slavery 
carried on in their South American colonies. — Garcia de 
Lerma arrived with his elegant expedition in 1529 and sent his 
500 men in search of provisions. In the Bonda mountains as 
well as on the Ramada plains they were well received by the 
natives. The governor made use of this favorable circum- 
stance for the purpose of distributing their lands among the 
expeditioners who agreed to pay a recompense to the native 
owners. Garcia de Lerma resolved to divide and distribute 
also the lands of the Pocigueica tribe, as they were most val- 
uable. He went there in spite of the warnings of some exper- 
ienced captains who feared an attack. And so it came. The 
governor was attacked, completely defeated, and returned to 
Santa Marta wounded and without the 100 men of his body 
guard, who were killed, and without the rich outfit he had 
taken with him. As Lerma was on friendly terms with the 
Bonda Indians he somewhat later intended to subdue those of 
Coto and also the revolting Pocigueica tribe which had de- 
feated him lately. He aascrched out with a force, but was 
again obliged to retreat and to return without having accom- 
plished anything. At this time flattering news arrived from 
Pizarro who was conquering Peru. 

Governor de Lerma resolved to send an expedition in 
search of the burial places of Sinu which, according to tradi- 
tion, held fabulous wealth. With 110 resolute captains and 
men Sr. Viana, a clerical, set out and marched along the Mag- 
dalena river until they reached the influx of the Cauca which 
river they then followed. Although they were not opposed 
by enemies on this long march, because the Indians left their 
villages when the expedition approached, they, nevertheless, 




^pigCd^pKlES AND CONQUESTS 175 

suffered ail Raids' of hardships. The first difficulty was the 
death of thefr Ieiiter, Viana ; next came their quarrel at the 
election of a successofc^then followed lack of provisions, the 
unhealthfulness of the climate, the plague of insects, — all re- 
sulting in a thorough' discouragement. After eight months of 
strenuous and useless explorations they thought it best to re- 
turn to Santa Marta. There they heard of the death of the 
governor, Garcia de Lerma. 

Peter de Heredia, a former explorer of New Granada, 
had gone to Spain and obtained the right from the Spanish 
Court to establish himself between the river Magdalena and 
the isthmus of Panama. Having organized an expedition, he 
returned to the new world, entered the bay of Cartagena Jan- 
uary 14th, 1533, and promptly began operations. He had 
brought with him Francisco Cesar, who for the nobility of 
character shall occupy our attention soon. Heredia wished 
to gain the natives of that coast in his favor and, therefore, 
sent them presents ; but they returned them promptly. There- 
upon he attacked the town of Turbaco with 50 riflemen and 
20 horsemen. The natives made a desperate struggle to de- 
fend their homes, the battle lasting a whole day. Heredia ran 
great danger of his life on account of the heat of the sun and 
the smoke and also Cesar who removed 32 arrows from his 
knitted curass. Finally, however, <*fee natives were defeated, 
their village was reduced to ashes, and the victors returned to 
the coast. January 21st of the same year they laid the plan 
for the city of Cartagena, which was the third on the conti- 
nent to survive; Panama and San Sebastian being the two 
others. The next nearest chief was Carex whom Heredia 
endeavored to gain by friendly means. Carex declined to 
accept peace, was attacked, made a prisoner, and paid his con- 
querors more than 100,000 ducades worth of gold. Chief Ba- 
haire took notice, accepted peace, and not only surrendered 
gold amounting to 60,000 ducades to the Spaniards, but also 
assisted in bringing other neighboring chiefs into submission. 



176 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The governor then made a visiting tour to various chiefs and 
returned to Cartagena with a million and half ducades' worth 
of gold. The treasures so far received were now distributed 
among the participants and each soldier received a share 
amounting to 6000 ducades. This is said to have been the 
richest distribution ever made in the time of conquests, includ- 
ing Mexico and Peru. On another expedition Heredia under- 
took to find the mines from which the precious metal had been 
extracted and he returned with gold worth 400,000 ducades. 
Thus he had received and robbed two million ducades worth 
of gold, which may equal to 40 million dollars in American 
currency. The Spaniards knew how to make money. 

Francisco Cesar was a hero of rare qualities in the Span- 
ish conquests. He had been with Peter de Heredia from the 
beginning and had rendered him valuable services. But Here- 
dia appointed his own brother, Alonso, commanding general, 
instead of Cesar. It was an injustice to the latter and he felt 
it, but conquered himself and served under the new leader. 
Alonso de Heredia sent Cesar to the coast in search of pro- 
visions. The latter found them very abundantly in Tolu 
whose chief even presented him with 100,000 ducades of gold. 
Heredia demanded this metal from Cesar; but the latter re- 
fused to deliver it, saying it must be distributed among the ex- 
peditioners. Cesar having returned as far as Zenu was put 
on trial and condemned to death; however, no one could be 
found who would execute the judgment. — The treasure of 
Dabaibe had been the object of search since a long time. Alon- 
so de Heredia's mind was so thoroughly bent upon finding this 
treasure that he would not permit any one else to go in search 
of it. April 1536 he started out with 210 men to find the 
treasure. The expedition suffered many hardships, the most 
of the men perished, and the rest returned without the treas- 
ure of Dabaibe. The following year Cesar, followed by 100 
volunteers, marched out of San Sebastian to search for the 
same treasure, taking the route along the sea-shore. Having 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 177 



overcome great difficulties, the expedition finally reached the 
country of chief Untibara who opposed them with 2000 In- 
dians. The ensuing fight was desperate until Cesar succeeded 
to kill the chief's brother, whereupon the natives retreated. 
The Spaniards took gold amounting to 40,000 ducades, and 
concluded to retire to San Sebastian for the purpose of return- 
ing with a larger force of men, as the country was well pop- 
ulated and rich. At his arrival at San Sebastian, Cesar heard 
of the sad misfortune of the Heredias. The governor and his 
brother had been accused by the Audiencia of Santo Domingo 
of having^ retained the fifth part of the income due the king 
and of not having suppressed slavery. They had been thrown 
into a prison and been burdoned with shackles. Cesar who ar- 
rived at mid-night, at once went to the dungeon where those 
were held who had formerly condemned him to death. He 
spoke kind and conciliatory words to them. Then he brought 
them their part of the treasures which the last trip had pro- 
duced and even entrusted them with his own fortune with the 
request to take it to the Court for safe-keeping. Not satis- 
fied yet, he took all necessary steps to the end that Sr. Vadillo, 
their judge, might improve their condition. This broke their 
hearts and Cesar's former enemies became his admirers. 

We will now turn to the conquest of the kingdom of the 
Chibchas and advise the reader to reread the extended account 
we give of this kingdom in division I, pages 95 to 109. This 
kingdom was the second center of Primitive South American 
civilization. The Spaniards knew of it and undertook its con- 
quest in 1536 in three expeditions, commanded by Nicolas Fed- 
erman, Sebastian de Belalcazar, and Jimenez de Quesada. The 
latter accomplished the work. Each commander started from 
a separate town and pursued a different route into the interior. 
We shall not follow each expedition separately or relate their 
dangers, their fights with the natives, their privations, sick- 
nesses, and numbers of dead in detail. However, Quesada e. g. 
left Santa Marta with 820 men on foot and 85 horsemen and 

12 



178 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



within a year had only 166 men left. Belalcazar attacked the 
kingdom of Quito and captured the city. While he was there, 
he again heard of Cundinamarca, the country in which the 
caciques covered themselves with gold dust and bathed in 
lakes which the people kept sacred. Belalcazar naturally re- 
solved to go to that country and look for "El dorado." He 
came to the country of the Chibchas after Quesada had con- 
quered it, but did not find the golden man ; however, on this 
search he caused the town of Cali to be founded, while he him- 
self laid the plan for the city of Popayan, the management of 
which he entrusted to Garcia de Tovar. 

Quesada was the first to arrive at the country of the Chib- 
chas. There Bogata had just become Zipa and had seized the 
reins of government. Ramiriqui, the chief of Tunja, uninten- 
tionally and indirectly communicated to the Zipa the arrival 
of a few strange men who demanded obedience to a foreign 
monarch. The Zipa called his principal warriors and selected 
600 men of valor, believing this number to suffice to fight the 
handful of adventurers. These 600 natives first met that part 
of Quesada's force which had the sick in charge; but a few 
captains hurled themselves with such fury against the natives 
that their retreat was already decided when Quesada arrived 
with reenforcement. The natives, pursued by the Spaniards, 
fled to fort Busongote. Quesada with all his probably 150 
men began the siege, but only a few fierce attacks were neces- 
sary to take the fort. The chief of Suba received the stran- 
gers peacefully and offered his services to open communica- 
tions with Bogata. The latter, at first refusing to go to the 
Spanish camp, by and by consented, but did not go. Quesada 
grew tired of waiting for the Zipa, lifted the camp, and 
marched to Guatavita, the capital. The natives set fire to their 
dwellings and abandoned the city; the Spaniards, however, 
arrived in time to extinguish the conflagration. Many days 
they sought the Zipa in vain. To occupy the country Quesada 
cent one section of his men south and the other west, under 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



179 



San Martin and Cespedes respectfully. The first entered the 
territory of the Panches who offered them a battle in which 
the Spaniards came in such sore straits that they were about 
to be defeated. They withdrew and did not again molest the 




THE LICENDIADO, GONZALO JIMENEZ DE QUESADA, 
CONQUEROR OF THE CHIBCHAS 

Panches for some time. The native city of Tunja was the 
seat of Zaque Ramiriqui, which Quesada determined to take. 
August 20th, 1537, at sunset he appeared before the city and 
demanded entrance without delay. The gates were forced 
open and Suarez Rondon placed himself with his knights in- 
side the court which was surrounded by palisades, while Ques- 
ada with a few men entered the palace where the sovereign 



180 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



awaited them. He appeared dressed in the royal insignias 
and, being red with anger, received the intruders with cold dig- 
nity. Ouesada, hearing the murmurs of the natives and con- 
sidering the small number of his men, resolved to make quick 
work. He ordered Anton de Olaya to apprehend the Zaque, 
which he did without more ado. Then they looked for the 
treasures of the Zaque and got enough to satisfy their avarice. 
Having succeeded thus far, the prisoner had no reason to com- 
plain, as regards the respect and treatment they accorded him. 

Next the rich temple of Sagomoso in the venerable dis- 
trict of Iraca drew the attention of the conquerors. They 
looked for those places first where they could make the richest 
spoils. In the first days of September they left Tunja. As 
they approached the town of Sagomoso the natives attempted 
to defend it, but were readily defeated. The Spaniards 
entered the place which had been kept sacred since cen- 
turies. The shadows of the night having fallen they resolved 
to wait until next morning to sack the temple. However, two 
soldiers, more ambitious than the others, succeeded to enter 
through two windows which they forced open. The reader 
already knows how through this rash act the temple was set 
on fire and burned to ashes with the priest and the golden 
treasures of the sanctuary and the traditions of a nation. 
Ouesada marched from place to place and finally established 
his camp in Suesca where he gave the Zaque his liberty, whom 
he had carried with him as prisoner. The Zaque endured the 
remorse caused by the calamity that had come over him, a few 
days only ; then he died. Leaving the camp in charge of his 
brother Hernan Perez, Quesada set out on another expedition 
to look for more treasures. They found much gold in the 
valley of Neiva because the district was rich in this metal; 
but they did not find enough provisions to satisfy their want. 
Thus they continued in their search, hungry and starved, and 
came into such sad straits that no one was strong enough to 
carry the stolen gold ; so they were about ready to leave the 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



181 



treasure behind. What a spectacle those Spaniards must have 
presented — the natives fleeing them, and they with their treas- 
ures of gold at the point of starvation. On the savannah of Bo- 
gata they distributed the taken treasures among their number. 
The entire amount of gold distributed was equal to 246,972 du- 
cades; they also had 1,815 emeralds, besides what the captains 
may have kept apart for themselves. Scouring the country, 
fighting the natives to take their treasures, the Spaniards ap- 
pear like highway robbers. In an engagement they captured 
two natives, of whom they wanted to learn the hiding place of 
Zipa Bogata. One preferred death to the rebuke of being a 
traitor to his sovereign, while the other told them the hiding 
place. Bogata had withdrawn to the western mountains, to 
the neighborhood of Focatativa where he had an inclosed place. 
Thither Quesada and his men went. Marching all night, they 
took the natives by surprise. However, the latter put up a 
fight and in the tumult of the darkness one of Quesada's sol- 
diers killed the Zipa, without knowing it. While the natives 
carried his body away, the Spaniards searched all the blankets 
for values, found, however, but little gold. The Zipa natur- 
ally had placed his treasures in safety. 

A new Zipa had to be chosen. The chief of Cia was the 
legitimate heir ; but for various reasons Sajipa was made Zipa. 
As not all the courtiers were in favor of Sajipa, a spirit of 
discontent became prevalent, which the Spaniards turned to 
their advantage. Sajipa had to contend with various enemies, 
principally with the Panches, and sought the help of the Span- 
iards. He was well received by them and, being asked to 
acknowledge the superiority of the Spanish king, swore alle- 
giance to him. Being now the allied of Quesada, the Span- 
iards assisted him in his war with the Panches, who were de- 
feated and made subjects of Zipa Sajipa. Sad to say: Saji- 
pa's new friends were his worst enemies. First the Spaniards 
demanded of him the surrender of the former Zipa's treasure, 
then they asserted that he was a usurper and that the Zipaship 



182 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



belonged to the cacique of Cia. Quesada determined his arrest. 
When the natives were still rejoicing on account of the victory 
over the Panches and were in the midst of a general merriment, 
Quesada gave orders to imprison Sajipa who was his ally. 
The Spaniards soon took to cruelty. A trial that was instituted, 
was a farce; for Sajipa's friends were his enemies and his 
judges were his executioners. He was condemned to death and 
died under the application of most barbarous torments. This 
injustice was one of the darkest spots in Quesada's career. 

To continue the conquest Quesada believed he should re- 
ceive permission directly from the Court and, therefore, 
planned to go to Spain. But prior to starting he felt the ne- 
cessity of laying out the plan for the capital of the new empire. 
He decided in favor of the locality where the summer house 
of Zipa Bogata stood, which place Fernandez Valenzuela had 
already pointed out. Twelve houses and a church, all thatched, 
were constructed in 1538 and the new capital was called Santa 
Fe de Bogata. Quesada appointed a board of aldermen and 
thereby created the first beginning of civil government in the 
interior. About this time the other two expeditions that also 
had started out for the conquest of the Chibchas, reached that 
part of the country. Belalcazar and his men having captured 
Quito arrived, dressed in rich clothes ; Federman and his men, 
however, wore skins of wild animals which they had hunted on 
the llanos of Venezuela. Quesada asked the leaders to accom- 
pany him on his voyage to Spain and they consented. To 
Federman he made the offer of paying him $10,000 for his ex- 
peditionary force and outfit. Also the venerable Las Casas 
agreed to accompany them. Las Casas was known as a pro- 
tector of the Indians, who were often cruelly treated by the 
explorers. He had preached for some time in Bosa, then in 
Bojaca and was now priest of Santa Fe. This latter mission 
was put in charge of Father Verde jo who had come with 
Federman. The three captains and the priest embarked at 
Guataqui on the Caribbean Sea May 16th, 1539, for Spain. 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS iS3 



• While these leaders were absent from New Granada, 
other captains undertook operations. We will follow some 
principal movements to obtain a closer insight in the affairs of 
those early times. Jimenez de Quesada had placed his brother 
Hernan Perez in charge of the general government. George 
Robledo, however, had for a long time been one of his bright- 
est and most successful captains. He now undertook to found 
towns in the valley of the river Cauca, occupied the province 
of Auserma and there founded the town of Santa Ana. He 
defeated various tribes and brought others to submission by 
peaceful measures. Robledo thus secured a large and rich 
territory, of which he intended to obtain the governmental po- 
sition ; in this intention, however, he was wrong and ran great 
risk, as we shall see. He also explored the territory towards 
the south and founded the city of Cartago with all legal for- 
malities. There he was halted in his successful career by the 
arrival of licensed Pascal de Andagoya who was sent by the 
Spanish Court as governor of a district along the coast. As 
soon as his authority had been recognized, he took possession 
of the city of Santa Ana which had been founded by Robledo. 
The latter submitted to Andagoya's authority, surrendered to 
him even a part of the gold he had acquired, and then returned 
to Cartago without delay. In the mean time Belalcazar had 
returned from Spain. He had obtained the government which 
he had solicited from the Spanish Court and having returned 
to Cali in 1541, he was recognized as governor by officials and 
colonists. Andagoya wanted to resist forcibly, but, abandoned 
by all his men, he had to follow Belalcazar as prisoner to 
Popayan. There a worse fate would have been his, had not 
Vaca de Castro intervened. Balalcazar then sent to Robledo to 
demand his obedience which the latter readily gave. Never- 
theless, the completeness, with which Robledo had recognized 
Andagoya, gave rise to the mistrust which Governor Belalcazar 
henceforth entertained towards him and which later became 
fatal to Robledo and a cloud that darkened Belalcazar's fame. 




184 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA _ 

J* 

Robledo in the course of time still carried 
exploits and finally made up his mind to gjj 
recompense for his services. With tweli 
Sebastian to embark for the homeland. ^M^liere" Ai6*hzo de 
Heredia, considering him a defrauder ofjjfis .^brother's rights, 
put him in prison, took his gold from him; and Wanted to send 
him as a prisoner to Spain. Before Robledo was embarked, 
Cuza de Leon, the historian, went in his behalf to Panama to 
defend him before the audiencia, but did not achieve any re- 
sult. Then he went to Popayan, but there Belalcazar had al- 
ready declared Robledo a rebel and a traitor. Such wer^ihe' 
charges that rested upon this successful explorer on his yay to 
Spain. He wanted to solicit favors, but went home 'under 
heavy accusations. 

The other two companions of Belalcazar, Quesada and 
Federman, had not obtained any favors from the Court of 
Spain. Federman had lost the fortune he had acquired in the 
new world and it appears the Spanish Court granted no favors 
without pay. Quesada, the conqueror of the Chibchas and 
founder of the new capital, had not had the ability to solicit 
before the Court, .which, indeed, was petitioned at the same 
time by a rival of his, both having the same object in view. 
This rival was Alonso Luis de Lugo who claimed that a gov- 
ernment had been promised his father, "for two generations." 
Lugo was successful and became governor of the country of 
the Chibchas in 1542. He came to the new world, not to make 
the colony prosperous, not* to advance the, welfare of the na- 
tives, but to enrich himself in the shortesftime possible. Lu- 
go's way of doing things is another example of the policy of 
the Spanish courtiers. The desire of amassing gold, however, 
was predominant Avith all the Spanish explorers and managers. 
One of Lugo's first official acts was to nullify the distribution 
of the contributions the natives paid in the province of Guane ; 
the paid contributions which used to be distributed among the 
Spanish landowners, should now flow into his own purse. This 




0I§£QVimiES AND CONQUESTS 185 



i^ed two .bad results — those who had partici- 
tlie - '^Mbutions became Lugo's enemies and so much 
as they^^yihat he claimed for himself what he de- 
em ^ff, and thjejl^llectors of the contributions began to 
Th£y treated the natives in such a manner that these 
ferf ed 4() leave their; villages or were inclined to follow the 
e^fciir3te/^ Qftianchon who slew the collectors who wanted to 
i^a^pve^li pm, and proclaimed an insurrection. In view of- 
5 goou results the nullification of the distribution in the 
provfnoe oLGuane had produced for his own purse, Lugo took 
steps'Ho ur||e the town bdardi to extend that measure to all 
provirjpes. "The peo-ple of Santa Fe and Malaga refused to 
give rrp}the income f rom their encomiendas ; but Lugo decreed 
by hint&e-lf and for himself, to force them to forfeit this in- 
come.'" ; ,He, however, to'ok care to keep some of his partisans 
yd good" humor, while Jthe discontentment was spreading and 
endangering his authority. His policy had created serious 
conditions <and he fehfcthat he was obliged to meet opposition 
with force. So he J#ok steps against several encomenderos, 
imprisoned six, and confiscated their properties. Among these 
prisoners were Saurez Rondon, Galiano, and the two brothers 
Quesada. About this time the Court sent judges who should 
reside in New Granada. Lugo, fearing their arrival, resolved 
to escape and to go to Santa Marta to embark for Spain. The 
prisoners, mentioned he took with him to the coast. In Santa 
Marta he pttrchased a ship ; but before embarking he was ar- 
rested by the officers for his acts of violence, and the prisoners 
were set free. However, Lugo sailed, and was again appre- 
hended at Havana. There he bribed the judge. Arriving in 
Spain ;he was not even called on to give an account; for he 
had many protectors in the Court, and 300,000 ducades in his 
purse. Later in life Lugo was engaged in wars in Italy, and 
he died in Milan. In New Granada he had left his relative, 
Montalo de Lugo, in' charge of the government. 

To characterize those times more thoroughly we shall re- 



186 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA ^/ 

late two cases of cruelty. Peter de Anyasco had •'^ a ^JRjj& e 
town of Timana. This colony would have pt(^perla^n%o! 

Anyasco known how to dominate his cruel temperament. /With- 
out known reasons he burned alive the son of jhe $mverful 
female chief Gaitana. The enraged mother took revenge. She 
went throughout the neighboring districts, preaching revolt 
and war, and united 6000 warriors under her banner with 
whom she marched against Timana. She surprised twenty of 
Anyasco's men, had them all killed and took barbarous and 
bloody revenge upon Anyasco. After these events the colonists 
of the district lived in perpetual alarm. They finally agreed 
to offer the management and protection of the colony John 
Cabrera. The natives believed that they would fare better 
with the new chief, and hence brought him gold, fruits, and 
provisions. Cabrera received them kindly and asked them to 
come in larger numbers and to help erect comfortable houses. 
So they did ; they came and helped. And while they were \ 
working entirely unconcerned, Cabrera and his men attacked 
them, killing, butchering, and covering themselves with the 
blood of innocent victims. Henceforth the hatred between the 
races was irreconcilable. The natives retired to their fast- 
nesses whence now and then they sallied forth with irresistible 
force, killing and burning, and they destroyed the colony of 
Timana. 

The continual complaints which came from South Amer- 
ica to the Spanish Court and the failure to inforce the regula- 
tions and laws that had been dictated to give the natives a 
decent and just government, induced the emperor to send 
Michael Diez de Armendariz to New Granada as a visitor to 
inspect the four governments which had thus far been estab- 
lished in that colony. The judge arrived in 1544, a few r days 
after Lugo had departed so hurriedly. Without loss of time 
Armendariz opened legal proceedings against Peter de Heredia 
and terminated the same by suspending him from office. Then 
he hastened to communicate to the other governors the new 



I 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 187 

laws dictated by the monarch in favor of the natives. Em- 
peror Charles V. had disposed in them that the Audiencias be 
vigilant concerning the good treatment which the natives 
should receive. Under no circumstance should they be made 
t slaves, . or should they be forced to work without their con- 
Asent, or be obliged to carry burdens without pay. Moreover, 
|ie had ordered that the natives who were slaves be set free, 
that the encomenderos who treated their subjects badly be de- 
prived of the customary contributions, and lastly it was firm- 
ly stipulated that the Spaniards shall have neither control nor 
power over the natives of new discovered countries. These 
"new laws" became the cause of disturbances and scandals 
throughout the colonies ; for the encomenderos were accus- 
tomed to consider themselves masters over the lives and prop- 
erties of the natives. Governor Belalcazar took it upon his 
\ own responsibility to suspend the enforcement of the laws. 
The townboards sent delegates to the Spanish Court to com- 
plain of the severity of the laws. Then originated the saying: 
"We obey, but we do not comply." Armendariz gave orders 
^ to apprehend a number of persons among whom were San- 
chero and the acting governor Montalvo de Lugo. 

In 1545 George Robledo returned to Cartagena. About 
four years previous he had gone to the homeland under heavy 
accusations and now he returned with the honor and title of a 
marshal which the Court had granted him. Judge Armenda- 
riz recognized his title and gave him the government of Antio- 
gia in the capacity of a subaltern to the governor of Carta- 
gena. Thus Robledo returned to the sphere of his former 
activity which, alas ! soon should become the place of his de- 
struction. It was no easy task for him to obtain recognition 
from the men who held offices in his territory and had to em- 
ploy more or less violent means. When Belalcazar arrived at 
Cali, he heard of Robledo's return and of what he tried to 
accomplish in a territory subject to his own jurisdiction. The 
,i$arshal commissioned Gomez Hernandez to deliver an order 



4 



188 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of Judge Armendariz to Belalcazar in which the judge re- 
quired of him to stay in Cali. Belalcazar sent the emissary 
back to Robledo with the notice to vacate the territory or to 
think of defense and marched with 150 chosen men out to look 
for the marshal. The latter sent commissioners three times 
to sue for peace ; Belalcazar, however, protested not to desire 
less than his old companion. It seems Robledo took this ex- 
pression in a favorable sense ; for he, being encamped with 70 
men, dispatched a few captains to the approaching governor to 
arrange the treaty he apparently was looking for. Belalcazar, 
being already near the marshal's camp, was met by two new 
emissaries whom he took captive to prevent Robledo from 
learning the route of his march. By making a long detour he 
succeeded in surprising his opponent at the dawn of October 
1st, 1546. Robledo wanted to resist, the majority of his men, 
however, left him. He then made up his mind to present him- 
self to his enemy, expecting considerations for the sake of his 
former services and from the magnanimity of his opponent. 
Belalcazar probably would have pardoned him, but his officers 
whom he called together for cousultation, would not. The 
majority decreed death punishment, which the marshal and 
three of his companions suffered October 5th. So ended Rob- 
ledo, one of the most notable persons of the conquest. 

. In Madrid the widow of Marshal Robledo demanded the 
punishment of her husband's murderers incessantly, in con- 
sequence of which Judge Brisceno was sent to indict Belalca- 
zar. Having arrived the judge initiated proceedings against 
him without delay. The result of the trial was that Governor 
Belalcazar was condemned to death. The condemned man, 
however, appealed to higher authority and the conqueror of 
the south was sent to Spain in the capacity of a criminal. In 
Cartagena he was received by Heredia and the principal neigh- 
bors with the attention due his achievements and correspond- 
ing to his disgrace. Burdened with years and sorrow and al- 
ready feeble, Belalcazar died in Cartagena in 1550. Nemesis 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 189 



pursued the criminals in New Granada and we shall see how 
she fulfilled her duty in the other countries. 

• Visiting Judge Armendariz resolved to extend his author- 
ity over the provinces of the interior also and carried this 
resolve into effect officially in Santa Fe de Bogata January 
17th, 1547. To continue the explorations and to found new 
cities, he sent out two expeditions in opposite directions. One 
was successful in pacifying the natives, and founded three 
cities. The judge published ftie "new laws" also in the interior 
provinces with due solemnity; however the uneasiness which 
had resulted therefrom in other places, renewed itself here also. 
The boards of the principal towns sent representatives to Spain 
to solicit the revision or even the recall of the laws. — The con- 
tinuous complaints against the supervisors (encomenderos) 
which reached the Court and the repeated petitions which the 
townboards brought, asking for an equal distribution of the 
contributions, induced the Court to establish an Audiencia in 
Santa Fe. This was to consist of two chambers, was definite- 
ly decreed by the emperor July 17th, 1549, and finally installed 
in April of the following year when the royal seal was received. 
The audiencia was composed of several judges, one fiscal, one 
clerk, one chancellor, one reporter, one treasurer, and one con- 
stable. 

The establishment of the audiencia in Bogota was of the 
highest importance in the conquered territory ;. for, so far there 
had not been another law observed than the will of the encom- 
enderos, who obeyed but did not comply ; and the natives had 
to submit to their whims. The audiencia together with the judg- 
es of the districts who were to be for whites and natives alike, 
should be the protectors of the latter. The creation of the 
audiencia, therefore, is the first beginning of civil government 
in New Granada in the sense of a colonial regime ; it is the 
event which brings the time of conquest to a close and initiates 
the colonial period. 



190 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



EXPLORATIONS IN VENEZUELA. 
1499 to 1567. 

When the Spaniards under Alonso de Hejeda explored the 
northern coasts in 1499 they discovered a bay where the na- 
tives had built houses on piles standing in water, which were 
connected with the shore by bridges. As the village reminded 
them of Venice in Italy, they called it Venezuela, i. e. small 
Venice. This name was applied to the whole coast and coun- 
try. These coasts were occasionally visited by more or less 
fruitless naval expeditions which were mainly undertaken for 
the purpose of seizing the natives to drag them into slavery 
and which consequently were dreadful for the poor Carinas. 
In the year 1527 John de Amp ties was sent by the audiencia of 
Santo Domingo with 60 men to Venezuela to stop the infamous 
slave-trade. There he soon gained the friendship of a power- 
ful chief, founded the town of Coro, and resolved to follow a 
system of peaceful conquest. The Spanish Court, however, 
conceded the right of exploring and colonizing Venezuela to 
the Welzers, a commercial company of Hamburg, Germany, 
who sent Ambrose Al finger as their representative to those 
shores. As the country was poor in minerals, Alfinger fol- 
lowed the trade in slaves. He crossed lake Maracaibo with 
180 men, pursued a course towards the south, and reached the 
plains of Bogata, fighting the Indians and taking their treas- 
ures. On his return to Coro the Indians attacked and wounded 
him ; three days later he died. Two years-ajter his death the 
company sent George Spira as governor with 400 men to Coro. 
He undertook a strenuous campaign of five years in which he 
also came into the neighborhood of Bogata, but having re- 
turned to Coro he had only 90 men left from the 400 with 
whom he had started out. There he died the following year. 
During his absence his subaltern, Nicolas Federman, in accord 
with Jimenez de Ouezada, also left Coro and, pursuing a south- 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



191 



westerly course, reached the country of the Chibchas. The 
German leader conceded his troops to Quesada for $10,000 
and went with him to Spain where he died. 

Since the year 1532 an episcopal seat had been established 
in Coro and after Spira's death the bishop was made governor 
by the audiencia of Santo Domingo. During this government 
the German Captain Philip von Hutten left in search of a cer- 
tain wonderland. It was said that there was a king or priest 
in a southland who covered himself with fragrant rosin every 
morning and upon this spread gold-dust. As this incommo- 
dated him at night, he washed himself in the evening and cov- 
ered his body again next morning. No country could be com- 
pared with his, so rich it was in precious metals. This new 
version of el dorado had circulated among the Spaniards a 
long time, but no one knew where to locate the country. To 
discover the wonderland many expeditions went out from Ven- 
ezuela, New Granada, and Peru and continued to go out in 
search during the entire 16th century. The noble and humane 
Von Hutten achieved the most in the long search of el dorado 
and his country. With 130 men under his command he left 
Coro in June, 1541, and went by sea to Burburata and thence 
he started for the llanos, continuing until he reached the town 
which subsequently was called San Juan de los Llanos. The 
march of the expedition was through trackless plains and 
woods, across impetuous rivers and deep morasses, in tropic 
heat and torrential rains that were more than enough to de- 
press the stoutest hearts. But these dauntless soldiers of for- 
tune pressed onward, fully convinced that they would event- 
ually find the object of their quest. After untold trials and 
dangers Von Hutten, near the crest of the eastern Cordillera, 
to the southeast of Popayan, faced about and directed his 
course toward the river Guaviare, on the banks of which his 
Indian guide had assured him was a great city called Macatao, 
the capital of a region rich in gold and silver. As an evidence 
of the truth of his story he showed the German leader samples 



192 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of gold, fashioned in the form of apples or nisperos,. which, he 
said, had been brought from that city. But before he could 
reach his eagerly coveted goal the winter season came on and 
the entire country was inundated, so that there was then noth- 
ing left for them to do but to seek higher grounds and await 
the return of the dry season. But as the district in which they 
took refuge was sparsely populated and almost entirely desti- 
tute of the means of subsistence the intrepid explorers soon be- 
gan to experience all the horrors of famine. For a while 
their chief sustenance was a mixture of maize and ants. The 
ants were secured by placing some maize near the opening of 
an ant hill, and when it was covered with these insects they 
consumed maize and insects together, thus appeasing their 
hunger. But as there was not enough of this aliment for all, 
many were fain to appease the gnawings of hunger by consum- 
ing grubs, beetles, or other things equally disgusting. In con- 
sequence of this their hair, beards and eyebrows fell out. 
"Finally," writes Oviedo y Banyos, "all were covered with 
pestiferous tumors and poisonous ulcers, and that afflicted 
troop was converted into a theater of miseries and a hospital 
of misfortunes." 

Did the harships cause them to abandon their enterprise? 
Far from it. When the innudation had subsided sufficiently 
to permit them to travel they resumed their march; for the 
reported existence toward the south of a country abounding 
in gold and silver supplied them with a new clue and gave new 
zeal to the expedition. After a long and perilous march, dur- 
ing which they passed through the country of the Napes and 
visited their capital, Macatao, the brave and persevering ex- 
peditioners reached the land of the rich and powerful Oma- 
guas who inhabited the territory between the Guaviare and 
the Caqueta. Here, from an elevated position, the adventur- 
ers discried what they fondly believed was the goal which they 
had so long been striving to reach. It was a city so large that 
though it was near at hand it extended beyond the range of 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 193 



vision. The streets were straight with the houses close to- 
gether and in the midst of all was an imposing edifice which, 
their Indian guide informed them, was the palace of Quarica, 
the lord of the Omaguas. The structure also served as a tem- 
ple in which Von Hutton's guide stated, were idols of massive 
gold. Some of them, he averred, were as large as children 
three or four years old, while one of them was the size of a 
fullgrown woman. Besides these objects there were also in- 
calculable treasures belonging to the cacique and his vassals. 
And beyond this great city, Von Hutton and his men were 
assured, were other larger and richer cities belonging to pow- 
erful chieftains who governed countless subjects and whose 
treasures of gold were far greater than those of the Omaguas. 

With such vast riches within their grasp the adventurers 
were beside themselves with joy. Though their number had 
dwindled to but 40 men, Von Hutten, putting spurs to his 
horse, dashed forward, followed by his men who all confident- 
ly expected to be in a few hours the possessors of princely for- 
tunes. But a well-directed javelin from the hand of an Oma- 
guan Indian wounded the daring leader seriously and sud- 
denly arrested the impetuous onset, compelling the attacking 
party to beat a hasty retreat. 1500 Omaguan warriors were 
soon in hot pursuit and shortly after engaged the invaders in 
battle. The Indians, however, notwithstanding their vastly 
superior numbers, were defeated with great loss, while the fol- 
lowers of Von Hutten, under the command of Pedro de Lim- 
pias, did not have a single casuality. The victors then re- 
turned to San Juan de los Llanos where a council of war was 
convened in which it was decided not to prosecute the enter- 
prise so auspiciously begun without more men who had to be 
obtained from Coro. But Von Hutten did not live to realize 
his fond hopes ; for he was soon afterwards cruelly murdered 
through the treachery of Pedro de Limpias, whereupon the 
other expeditioners disbanded and the enterprise came to a 
close. 
13 



194 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Did Yon Hutten really discover el dorado? He certain- 
ly thought so, as did likewise his brave followers. Fully cred- 
iting what his Indian guides had told him regarding the vast 
treasures of gold kept in the temple of the Omaguas, he con- 
cluded at once that the cacique of this tribe was no other than 
the long-sought-for "Gilded King." Other adventurers had 
but heard of el dorado, but the German commander and his 
men had actually located him, though this el dorado was not 
that of the Chibchas. They had actually gazed on his palace 
which was an immense storehouse of silver and gold and had 
entered that wonderland of the south. The Gilded King was 
no longer a mere chimera ; he was the ruler of a densely pop- 
ulated region between the Guaviare and the Amazon and his 
people were known as Omaguas. Henceforth the names El 
Dorado and Omaguas were regarded as synonymous, with in- 
exhaustible wealth. 

In seventeen years the undertakings of the Welzers had 
produced profits neither for the company nor for the crown. 
Charles Y., therefore, suspended their privilege and sent un- 
interested /. P. Tolosa as governor to Yenezuela. He began 
to colonize by founding towns and apportioned the natives to 
the conquerors, as was customary among the Spaniards. Al- 
though Tolosa governed but a short time, his government was 
so appreciated that his successors followed in his footsteps, 
populating the country by means of founding many villages. 
Francisco Ficardo, was the first Creole who undertook the con- 
quest of the plains of Bogata. Repelled by the natives, he 
returned to Coro and with a new expedition founded various 
towns, one on the very spot where Caracas now stands. The 
formal founding of the capital, however, took place seven 
years later by Diego de Lozada (1567). Yenezuela, however, 
continued two hundred years longer to be managed by a gov- 
ernor who was responsible to the audiencia of Santo Domin- 
go, until the year 1773 when it was raised to a general captain- 
ship. 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



195 



DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF PERU. 
1525 to 1544. 

We have already learned how Francisco Pizarro, Diego 
de Almagro, and Ferdinand Luque made a contract in Panama 
to explore lands that might border the South Sea. Pizarro 
was of obscure birth, did not even know how to read, and had 
in his home country been in charge of herds of swine. Alma- 
gro had been an orphan in the village of Almagro in Spain 
where he had been maintained by alms. In middle life he had 
entered the army as a soldier and given evidence of valor. 
The low estate of these two men gives some explanation for 
their rude and barbarous ways of dealing in after life. Luque 
was a clergyman in the cathedral of Panama and enjoyed the 
dignity of a school-teacher. According to the contract they 
had signed, Pizarro should undertake explorations directly, 
Almagro should follow with ammunitions, provisions, and re- 
enforcements, while Luque was to maintain friendly relations 
with the authorities of Panama and provide all kinds of neces- 
saries for the expedition for which they thought $20,000 were 
necessary. 

Pizarro set sail in 1524 with 114 men. He touched var- 
ious places on the coast south of Panama, but while attempting 
a landing he was repelled by the natives. The expeditioners 
in the course of time encountered a thousand difficulties and 
adversities and were obliged to seek refuge on the sandy island 
of Gallo where hunger and thirst, climate, tempests, and dis- 
eases decimated their number during a seven months' stay. 
Nevertheless and in spite of this desperate situation Pizarro 
did not lose courage, but rather maintained determination and 
a firm purpose. Then their sufferings came to an end, for Al- 
magro arrived with provisions, arms, and equipments. There- 
upon Pizarro resolved to continue the explorations, although 
he had but thirteen men left who, however, swore rather to 



196 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



die than to leave him. With the thirteen he navigated along 
the shores of Ecuador which belonged to the empire of the 
Incas and at the time was governed by Atahualpa, as the read- 
er has already learned. The expedition cruised in the golf of 
Guayaquil and touched the northern coast of Peru at various 
points. Here the natives received them hospitably, as was 
customary with the Incas, and Tumbes became their favorite 
port. After three years of navigation they returned to Pana- 
ma, convinced that they had discovered the empire of the Incas. 
They came to seek reenforcements for the purpose of under- 
taking the conquest of Peru. 

When Pizarro reported the wealth he had seen in Peru to 
his two associates, they were greatly encouraged. The three 
arrived at the opinion that Pizarro go to Spain, taking with 
him some evidences of his discoveries, such as gold, silver, 
llamas, and natives. His object was to secure protection from 
Emperor Charles V. Charles V. was emperor of Germany 
and at the same time king of Spain with the title Charles I. 
As we relate Spanish conquests we shall designate hirn with 
the Spanish title King Charles I. The king and the Council 
of Indians recognized the petition of Pizarro and conferred 
distinctions and prerogatives on him, his two associates, and 
the thirteen companions. Pizarro was made adelantado for 
life whereby he became governor and captain general of Peru 
or New Castile, as the country was called also, and he was 
obliged to remit to the Spanish crown the fifth part of all 
products of mines and of all the species and values he might 
obtain by transactions or plunder. Almagro was made a no- 
bleman and commander of the fort of Tumbes. Luque be- 
came bishop of Tumbes and the thirteen companions of Pizar- 
ro were also made noblemen. 

Francisco Pizarro's high ambition it now was to conquer 
a kingdom for himself. For this great work he had to find 
his own fighting force and equipment. Having returned to 
Panama he united 280 men and 27 horses and sailed south with 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



197 



this expedition in 1531. With him were a few Dominican 
missionaries, among whom was Father Valverde; also his 
brother Hernando Pizarro, and Sebastian de Belalcazar, who 
later conquered Quito and became renowned in New Granada. 
The expedition arrived at the mouth of the river Guayaquil 
and pitched their camp on the island of Puno. Just then a 
war was waging between the people of that island and those 
of Tumbes. Pizarro intervened, favoring the latter, and there- 
by incurred the hatred of the people of Puno who attacked the 
Spaniards several times. These, however, were victorious 
and took much gold and silver from the islanders. Soon after, 
the expedition landed at Tumbes where now they were not so 
kindly received as at the first visit. The Tumbesites hid their 
treasures and attacked the expeditioners, killing a few. After 
two days the expedition left Tumbes and arrived at the river 
Piura where Pizarro founded the first town in Peru, calling 
it San Miguel. The author and his family were at this port 
in 1884 and by rail made a forty miles trip into the interior. 
Lingering here five months and leaving a small garrison, Pi- 
zarro led the expedition over land towards Cajamarca where 
Inca Atahualpa stayed at the time. Atahualpa had defeated 
his half brother Huascar at Cuzco, as we learned page 56, 
was now lord of the whole Inca empire, and on his return 
march to Quito, his capital. The Spaniards having arrived 
at Zaran were kindly received by the governor and the inhab- 
itants of the place and stayed a few days. They were now 
177 men, some of whom were horsemen ; there also was some 
artillery. At this place Pizarro received Till Atanchi, Ata- 
hualpa's brother, whom the emperor had sent as his ambassa- 
dor to manifest his good will to the strangers and to present" 
them with many gifts'. Pizarro received the embassy with 
affability and sent the men back to the emperor with the an- 
nouncement: "You and your soldiers are subjects of a power- 
ful king who lives beyond the sea. We have come by the will 
of that king and by the will of the highest pontifex to teach 



198 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



you the Christian religion. We shall treat you kindly and 
shall soon be in the presence of Atahualpa to protect him from 
his enemies." The expeditioners, however, suspected the Inca 
to act in bad faith ; for they knew he had a large army. They 
advanced to Cajamarca. 

Pizarro sent his brother Hernando, accompanied by Sr. 
Soto and the interpreter Felepillo, as ambassador to the em- 
peror. The latter was taking hot baths at springs that were 
about three miles distant from Cajamarca and had an army 
of 32,000 men at his command. The Inca received the Span- 
iards kindly and, having listened to Hernando Pizarro, gave 
this answer: "This day I am fasting and recuperating, but 
tomorrow I shall go to the city to visit my friend and to hear 
from his mouth the mission of his monarch and of the pon- 
tiff." The men of the embassy returned to the camp in a 
highly excited mood ; for they had seen great wealth, surpris- 
ing courtesy among the people, strict obedience to their sover- 
eign, and much order in the service. As the Incas seemed to 
be well organized, to have many resources and a numerous 
army, it appeared impossible to Francisco Pizarro and his men 
to accomplish the conquest in an open way by force. They 
thought treason to be the only way in which they could be- 
come masters of the country and possessors of its wealth. So 
they laid the plan to overpower the Inca at his visit, to terror- 
ize the army by discharges of the guns, which they had never 
heard before, and to pursue the fleeing natives with their cav- 
alry. For this purpose their force was divided into three di- 
visions and put under the command of Hernando Pizarro, 
Hernando Soto, and Sebastian de Belalcazar who hid them- 
selves behind some walls. It was November 16th, 1532, when 
that interview took place. As Atahualpa approached Caja- 
marca, he was seated on a golden throne which was carried 
on the shoulders of eighty of his noblemen, accompanied by 
the prominent men of his court, and escorted by the army 
which was divided into four divisions of 8000 men each and 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 199 



commanded by General Raminahui. Entering the plaza of 
the city and seeing the few Spaniards who had taken their 
stand there, Atahualpa turned to his soldiers and said : ''These 
men are sent by God and there is no reason to harm them, but 
let us show them courtesy and kindness." Then Pizarro sent 
Father Valverde with the interpreter to Atahualpa. After pre- 
senting himself and saluting the emperor, Valverde said : "The 
pope has conceded the possession of Peru to the Spanish king 
to convert all its inhabitants to the true religion. You, Ata- 
hualpa, must renounce the administration of the country, and 
if you do not, you will be forced to do so through fire and 
blood." Atahualpa, indignant at such unexpected intimation, 
threw the testament Valverde had given him with disgust 
away, and declared that he would neither change his religion 
nor become subjected to another king. Then Pizarro gave the 
sign and the guns belched forth and his men hurled themselves 
over the plaza, attacking the Inca, his noblemen and his sol- 
diers. As the emperor had ordered his army not to fight, the 
soldiers did not make use of their arms, rather became thor- 
oughly confused and were butchered like sheep in a horrible 
slaughter. About 5000 were slain. Pizarro tried to save the 
life of Atahualpa, covering him with his sword in the midst 
of a large concourse that surrounded him, and made him a 
prisoner. Having accomplished their object the Spanish sol- 
diery engaged in plundering and found gold, silver, and pre- 
cious stones in the clothes of the dead, in the temple, at the 
camp and the bath. 

Atahualpa was taken to the Spanish camp and made se- 
cure by a pair of handcuffs. He was treated like a criminal, 
but he proved himself to be above his misfortune. He was 
then 30 years old, was robust, and well proportioned ; he, how- 
ever, showed in his features a certain fiery air because his eyes 
were colored and bloodshot. Pizarro demanded a ransom for 
his liberty which Atahualpa promised. Standing on his feet 
and lifting his right arm, he told Pizarro that he would fill 



200 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the prison room with gold as high as his hand could reach. 
The conqueror accepted the offer and had it made sure by 
official writing, adding that also the adjoining room be filled 
with silver and be filled twice. Then the Inca gave the order 
to bring all the gold and silver that the temples, palaces, and 
other public buildings contained. How easily the Spaniards 
got the treasures of Peru! While these things happened Al- 
magro arrived with reenf orcements from Panama. . He and 
his men received their shares of the ransom values. The 
quantity of gold they received and distributed amounted to 
17,500,000 soles and the silver to about 4,000,000. They re- 
served the fifth part for the crown, which was taken to Spain 
by Hernando Pizarro. 

In spite of this immense amount of wealth that was paid 
for the Inca's liberty and in spite of their written promise, the 
Spaniards found reasons why they detained Atahualpa. Their 
word, their promise, having no meaning, they named a mili- 
tary tribunal to try, to condemn the Inca. They brought 
twelve charges against Atahualpa and had no legal right to 
any. Who can fathom the injustice, the perfidy of those pro- 
ceedings ? The tribunal was presided over by Pizarro and 
Almagro, the enemies of the accused, and the trial ended by a 
vote to the effect that Atahualpa suffer death, and death by 
burning alive on the plaza of Cajamarca. When they read 
the verdict to him, he said to the tribunal : "What have I done 
to merit death and such an awful death ? What have my chil- 
dren done ?" And turning to Pizarro he spoke thus : "Should 
I receive this in return from thee whom I have shown but kind- 
ness, dividing with thee my treasures, my friendship, and or- 
dering my people to show thee respect ?" Atahualpa, however, 
was resigned and came under the influence of Father Valverde 
whose endeavor it was to convert him to Catholicism and thus 
prepare him for death. The condemned man consented to 
become a Catholic and therefore the priest promised to use his 
influence so that the verdict of burning be changed to that of 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 201 



hanging. Thus Atahualpa died on the gallows August 29th, 
1533. He had been a prisoner since November 16th of the 
previous year. 

After these events Pizarro led his expedition towards 
Cuzco; but at Tocto he was confronted by General Quisquis 
with 12,000 veteran soldiers and by Till Atanchi, Atahualpa's 
brother, with 6000 determined volunteers. There they en- 
gaged in a battle that became adverse to the Spaniards who, 
having sustained heavy losses, had to capitulate. The Incas 
accepted the capitulation under the condition that the empire 
be restored to the oldest brother of Huascar, whose name was 
Manco. As soon as Manco heard of the capitulation he sum- 
moned his advisors for a consultation. The majority of them 
was of the opinion that he should not trust the strangers who 
had just by treason killed Atahualpa, and that they be forced 
to comply with the promises of the capitulation. But Manco, 
believing the justice of his cause would give him satisfaction, 
resolved to put himself into Pizarro's hands, not even keeping 
an armed force in readiness. When Pizarro arrived at Cuzco, 
he sent an embassy to Manco to congratulate him to his elec- 
tion ; and the latter came to the capital to be crowned by his 
Spanish friend. Manco confided sincerely in Pizarro's prom- 
ises and believed himself already happy. The Spaniard, how- 
ever, having become very cunning in his intrigues and frauds, 
for trivial reasons postponed the crowning of the Inca. See- 
ing himself deceived Manco succeeded in declaring himself 
sick and getting leave to go to Yungay where the gardens of 
the Incas were, to regain his health. While he was there, he 
planned a revolt against the Spaniards and united an army. 
The revolution that followed lasted three years and brought the 
foreign intruders often in such hard straits that their very- 
existence was endangered. But finally, after much suffering 
and fighting, the tide of war went against the Incas, and Manco 
found it necessary to flee to the mountains. There he organ- 
ized a small kingdom in 1536. Now the Spaniards were mas- 



202 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ters of the entire empire of the Incas, the kingdom of Quito 
being likewise captured by Belalcazar about this time. 

Henceforth difficulties arose between Pizarro and Alma- 
gro which resulted in a civil war, in a war that brought these 
and other leaders to an untimely end. Hernando Pizarro had 
brought the fifth part of Atahualpa's ransom to the Spanish 
Court and King Charles I. had granted the conquerors new 
titles and concessions. Francisco Pizarro was made marquis, 
and the government of all the northern part of Peru which 
now received the name New Castile, was conceded to him; to 
Almagro the government of all the southern part which was 
called New Toledo, was granted, with the right to conquer 
Chile. But in making this division of the Peruvian territory, 
the exact limit between New Castile and New Toledo had not 
been specified and especially had it not been designated to 
which section Cuzco, the most important city of the Incas, 
should belong. Almagro claimed it belonged to his sphere of 
jurisdiction, while Pizarro opposed this claim. The latter, 
however, was successful in persuading Almagro to enter upon 
the conquest of Chile at once ; the question concerning Cuzco 
might be decided in the meantime or later. Almagro organ- 
ized an expedition consisting of 150 Spanish soldiers, many 
natives, and some negroes, and left for distant Chile. The 
expedition traveled via Tucuman and then took a western 
route across the Andes, taking the river Maule in Central Chile, 
the southern limit of the Inca empire, for their objective point; 
it is likely they traveled on the Inca thoroughfare. The cam- 
paign became expensive, for Almagro lost large numbers of 
men and horses on the march across the mountains. The re- 
duced number advanced through northern Chile without op- 
position on the part of the natives, these being poor and peace- 
ful, and finally they reached the banks of the Maule. As the 
expeditioners had found no gold or other precious values, but 
had met with scarcity of provisions and with poverty, they 
convinced their leader of the expediency to return to Peru. 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 203 



Almagro, without attempting to establish himself in Chile, re- 
turned from his arduous campaign and with surprising celerity 
appeared before Cuzco. There Hernando and Gonzalo Pizar- 
ro, having only 200 men at their command, were besieged by 
a large force of natives who were under Manco. Without 
vacillation Almagro attacked the besieging natives and forced 
them to raise the siege, liberating the Pizarros out of a difficult 
situation. The latter repaid this service with perfidy. Tired 
of enduring such treatment, Almagro attacked the disputed 
city and occupied it, making the two Pizarros prisoners and 
hoping to reach an understanding with his old friend, Fran- 
cisco Pizarro. 

The latter had in 1535 founded a new capital, which was 
called Lima from the name of the Inca festival Rimac, which 
the natives were celebrating. There F. Pizarro resided when 
his brothers were made prisoners in Cuzco. He sent quite a 
force to assist them, but Almagro defeated his troops also and 
then at once marched against Lima. Having advanced as far 
as Mala, Francisco Pizarro met him for an interview. In 
order to liberate his brothers from prison, Pizarro conceded 
the capital, Cuzco, to Almagro, pending the settlement of the 
question in Spain. Sad, however, to say, the marquis, as 
often before, did not keep his word. Since his brothers were 
free he sent word to Almagro to vacate Cuzco and ordered 
troops to march against him, commanded by his brother Her- 
nando, while Almagro, who was sick at the time, sent a divi- 
sion under General Ordonyez to fight the enemy. At Salinas 
in the vicinity of Cuzco it came to a battle in which the Alma- 
grists were defeated and their general killed. Soon after sick 
Almagro was apprehended and put into prison. Perfidious 
H. Pizarro instituted a trial, had him condemned to death and 
beheaded. This occurred in 1538. 

Now when Francisco Pizarro was in control of all Peru, 
he sent his brother Hernando to conquer Upper Peru, or Bo- 
livia, which up to that time had been called Charcas. This ex- 



204 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



pedition having ended Hernando went to Spain to justify him- 
self before the king for the killing of Almagro ; but he was 
arraigned by the Council of Indias and sent to prison for a 
term of 20 years. Thus Hernando Pizarro disappeared from 
the scene of activity. The marquis sent his brother Gonzalo 
as governor to Quito, because he feared that Belalcazar, who 
had conquered that kingdom, might separate it from his own 
sphere of power. Gonzalo was successful; for he defeated 
Belalcazar, drove him out, and himself took possession of the 
kingdom. Here we have the reason why Belalcazar entered 
upon his career in New Granada. 

Gonzalo Pizarro gained much silver from the old mines 
of Porco and wmen he heard of rich deposits of gold he organ- 
ized a very numerous expedition to go in search of it. In 
climbing the eastern Cordillera the expeditioners experienced 
all the horrors of a downpour in a tropical forest and instead 
of finding gold they met all sorts of hardships ; diseases and 
hunger decimated their numbers. It is reported that about 
4000 Indians and the larger part of the Spaniards perished. 
On the bank of a river that emptied in the Amazon they con- 
structed a boat from materials they found in the forest. In 
this vessel which they called San Pedro, Orellana, an officer, 
and a few companions sailed down stream and, proceeding- 
faster than those on land, got separated from the rest of the 
expedition. These men were destined to make one of the 
greatest discoveries of the time ; for they sailed into a larger 
river, into the majestic Amazon. Orellana discovered thus the 
mightiest of streams about 2500 miles from its mouth and nav- 
igated its entire length. In a second vessel which he and his 
companions built and called Victoria they sailed on the Atlan- 
tic to the coast of Venezuela. This brilliant feat was accom- 
plished in 1841. — Francisco Pizarro ordered Pedro de Valdivia 
to conquer Chile. His achievements and how he came to his 
death we shall record in the conquest of that country. 

The fate that had befallen so many explorers, who had 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 




CLIMBING THE ANDES IN A DOWNPOUR 



206 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



sought and found gold and silver, who had taken cities and 
conquered kingdoms, also befell Francisco Pizarro. The 
Spanish government sent a member of the royal audiencia of 
Valladolid, Vaca de Castro, to Peru for the purposes of re- 
forming Pizarro's administration and of becoming his suc- 
cessor after his death. But-prior to the arrival of that mag- 
istrate, the friends of fallen Almagro, who were being prose- 
cuted by the Pizarros, conspired in Lima. Sunday, June 25th, 
1541, they entered the palace and assassinated Francisco Pi- 
zarro ; whereupon they proclaimed Almagro's only son, a 
youth of 21 years, governor of Peru. Pizarro died at the age 
of 65 years and his remains rest until the present day in the 
cathedral of Lima, where the author and his wife saw them in 
a glass-covered casket. Pizarro had been untiring in his en- 
deavors and labors, but was bent on fraudulent schemes. He 
had a firm and very valiant character, but was perfidious and 
revengeful. Had he been of nobler birth, doubtless he had 
acted better. He founded the cities of Piura, Trujillo, Lima, 
Huamanga, and Arequipa, organized municipal boards in 
them, and introduced encomiendas and mitas in Peru. As 
encomiendas and mitas were regulations which were in vogue 
in the colonial period, we shall explain the terms when we 
relate that period. 

With the death of Francisco Pizarro young Almagro ob- 
tained the reins of government. But as he had been placed in 
power by the assassins of Pizarro, he was confronted by op- 
position from the beginning. The governors* of Cuzco, Quito, 
and Popayan did not recognize his authority and offered armed 
forces to Vaca de Castro who had arrived by this time. The 
latter resolved to fight Almagro, who had retired towards the 
south. The encounter took place near Huamanga where 
the Almagrists were defeated. Young Almagro fled to Cuzco 
and there the authorities whom he himself had appointed, 
made him a prisoner and delivered him into the hands of Cas- 
tro who had him suffer death on the gallows. Young Alma- 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 207 



gro died at the age of 22 years. By this time all the first ex- 
plorers had disappeared from the scenery. They had been 
short lived and had not enjoyed the wealth they had acquired. 
Now also it was that the rich mines of Potosi were discovered 
by an Indian, called Huallpa. 




ANTIQUE BRIDGE. 



208 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



CONQUEST OF CHILE. 
1541 to 1561. 

After the unsuccessful expedition of Almagro to Chile. 
Francisco Pizarro authorized Peter de Valdivia to conquer 
that country. This captain had shown valor and acquired 
military experience in many battles, having distinguished him- 
self also in the battle of Salinas against the Almagrists. He 
raised funds, bought arms and horses, and engaged 150 adven- 
turous men. He also purchased a few head of cattle, some 
seeds, and utensils for the purpose of founding a colony. The 
expedition left for Chile in 1541 and followed the route that 
leads through the desert of Atacama, i. e. near the seashore. 
After a five months 5 march they arrived at the densely popu- 
lated valley of the Mapocho, a small mountain stream in Chile. 
On the banks of this river, at the foot of a hill, now called 
Santa Lucia, Valdivia laid the plan for the capital of the coun- 
try, laying out streets and a plaza, indicating the location of a 
church and a jail, and assigning lots to his companions. A 
few houses and huts were built and Valdivia appointed a cab- 
ildo, a town-board. Santiago de Chile having thus come into 
existence, the board declared Valdivia governor of the coun- 
try, without subjection to Peru. 

In harmony with the practice of the Spanish conquerors, 
Valdivia demanded of Chile's natives that they consider them- 
selves subjects of the king of Spain. They were told that 
God had placed his substitute, the pope, into this world, that 
this substitute had given all the lands and inhabitants of Chile 
to the Spanish king, and that, as they were the king's represen- 
tatives, the lands and the people belonged to them. Although 
the natives could not understand such reasonings, the Span- 
iards considered themselves, without further ceremony, mas- 
ters of their persons and properties. What about the explor- 
ers? They had not been commissioned by the king or were 
they provided with funds; they were adventurers who oper- 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 209 

ated on their own financial responsibilities. They had to pay 
out of their own purses for everything they needed — for 
clothings, food, arms, horses, for the entire outfit — and that 
in times when a shirt cost $100 and a horse $4000. A poor 
man evidently could not have undertaken an expedition. For 
the sake of reimbursing themselves for their heavy expenses, 
the expeditioners established the system of distribution and 
encomiendas. In accordance with this system Valdivia dis- 
tributed among his companions the lands and the natives who 
lived thereon. The Spaniards now were encomendado, i. e. 
intrusted with, the souls of the natives and with the duty to 
instruct them in the Catholic doctrines. So the natives worked 
their own fields for the Spaniards and were obliged to perform 
other labors for them, while the latter, taking little heed of 
the spiritual welfare of their subjects, thought mainly of en- 
riching themselves through their sweat. Consequently the 
natives were subjected to hard, hard labor, and treated like 
slaves and beasts. 

The natives of northern Chile imagined in their simplici- 
ty at first the white and bearded men to be beings of a super- 
ior race. They believed the discharges of rifles to be thunder 
produced by lightning, the rider and his horse to be one mon- 
ster. Thus naturally a superstitious terror befell them. And 
then their weapons and military practices gave the Spaniards 
every advantage over the natives. It was not seldom that in 
a combat each soldier would be equal to 100 or even to 1000 
natives. In spite of all this the latter, exasperated through 
the cruel treatment, rose against their oppressors. Near the 
coast they killed the Spaniards who were building a vessel 
and destroyed the structure. On the banks of a river they 
united a numerous army and while Valdivia marched against 
them with 90 horsemen, another chief attacked Santiago. 
The 50 Spaniards left in the place defended themselves des- 
perately behind the pallisades. Seven chiefs who had been 
held as prisoners, were beheaded and their heads thrown out 

14 



210 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



among the assailants ; but these were not dismayed thereby. 
The natives threw firebrands at the huts and the new town 
would have been destroyed, had Valdivia not returned in 
proper time ; before him they withdrew. More than a year 
and a half the colonists of Santiago spent in mortal anxiety. 
For want of clothing, they walked almost naked ; not having 
food, they ate the roots of the soil and these were disputed 
them by the natives. Only from distant Peru they could ex- 
pect help. To make the cup of misery full, the rumor circu- 
lated among the natives that Francisco Pizarro, Valdivia's 
friend, had been assassinated and that young Almagro, his 
opponent, was governor of Peru. To dispel the doubt and 
to procure assistance, Valdivia sent emissaries to Peru. While 
they were gone, the colonists sowed the handful of wheat that 
was left and nurtured two or three chickens and pigs that had 
been rescued from the fire by Ines Suarez. This was the first 
Spanish woman that came to Chile. She was of valuable 
service to her countrymen, as she supplied them with food in 
the fights with the natives. 

At last a ship with provisions arrived at the bay of Val- 
paraiso. The joy was great, though the ship was eighty miles 
away from the colony and the bay inhospitable. The vessel 
had been dispatched by emissary Monroy from Peru, who 
himself soon arrived over land with a re-enforcement of 70 
horsemen. Valdivia now ordered to found the city of Serena 
on the way to Peru. To explore Chile he dispatched expedi- 
tions to the south by land and by sea. As it was evident that 
with the forces on hand all of Chile could not be subdued, the 
leader sent new emissaries to Peru to procure more help. 
After an absence of two years Pastene returned from Peru, 
bringing, however, more adverse news about revolutionary 
movements. Then Valdivia himself went thither and ren- 
dered valuable services to Viceroy Gasca in the overthrow of 
Gonzalo Pizarro. To recompense him, Gasca confirmed Val- 
divia as governor of Chile and permitted him to organize a 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



211 



new expedition. He recruited about 200 adventurers with 
whom he returned to Chile, proposing to carry the conquest 
to a successful issue. In 1549 Valdivia marched at the head 
of 200 soldiers towards southern Chile. Overwhelming the 
natives that opposed him, he reached the banks of the Biobio, 
which is Chile's largest river, and near its mouth he founded 
the city of Concepcion. The Araucanians whom we have 
learned to know as a very warlike nation, fell unexpectedly 
upon the young town, but were repulsed with great losses. 
In order to terrify them, Valdivia committed an act of bar- 
barous cruelty ; he ordered to cut off the noses and ears of 
the prisoners and set them free to carry terror among their 
countrymen. The daring leader crossed the Biobio and, pen- 
etrating far towards the south, founded a number of towns, 
among which were Angol and Valdivia. 

Valdivia now considered the conquest of Chile complete 
and wrote so to the king of Spain; but the Araucanians did 
not think so. Having united their tribes and elected powerful 
Caup oilcan their toqui or leader, they opened war by destroy- 
ing a fort. Valdivia marched out of Concepcion with 50 horse- 
men to suffocate the uprising. A young native, Lantaro by 
name, a youth of 18 years, accompanied Valdivia. When they 
were near the revolting district, Lautaro stealthily went to 
Caupolican, encouraged his countrymen, and told them how 
they could overcome the Spaniards and their terrifying horses. 
They should operate in various divisions and one division after 
another should enter the fight so as to tire the enemy out. 
The Araucanians having accepted this plan, the battle of Tu- 
capel became a bloody and disastrous affair for the Spaniards. 
Valdivia and his 50 men and horses were defeated and all 
killed on one of the last days of 1553. The 500 Spanish col- 
onists of Chile, being now delivered to the fury of the natives, 
proclaimed Francisco de Villagran their governor. As such 
he ordered the garrisons of several southern towns to vacate 
the places and was in this way able to unite 160 soldiers with 



212 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



whom he left Concepcion in 1554 to fight the Araucanians. 
Crossing a range of hills near Lota, he was suddenly attacked 
and completely routed by Lautaro. Villagran escaped with 
a f ew companions to Concepcion, but, not having anything with 
which to defend that town, he retired with all the inhabitants 
to Santiago, a distance of 250 miles. The Araucanians de- 
stroyed the forsaken place. 

Caupolican marched southward against the towns of Im- 
perial and Valdivia, while Lautaro followed the governor. 
Crossing the river Maule he approached Santiago and ottered 
his followers the plunder of the terrified capital. The gov- 
ernor sent 50 Spanish horsemen and 300 submissive natives 
of the north against Lautaro, who engaged in the battle of 
Petorca which remained indecisive; however Lautaro with- 
drew. The cunning native soon took up the campaign anew, 
went into camp near the present city of Curico, and spread ter- 
ror among the people of the capital. Happily Villagran was 
successful in surprising his camp and in defeating the Arau- 
canians. Lautaro was captured and beheaded, and his head 
was carried to Santiago on a bayonet. 

In 1557 Garcia Hurtado de Mendosa came from Peru to 
take the place of Villagran. He was a son of the Peruvian 
viceroy, was sent by his father, was 22 years old, prudent, and 
energetic, and arrived with a brilliant following for the pur- 
pose of pacifying Chile. He went south by sea and embarked 
at Penco, where an attack of the Araucanians to prevent his 
landing, was repelled. The young governor entered Arauca- 
nia from the seashore with 600 infantry men and 100 calvary- 
men. The natives attacked at two different places, but were 
defeated each time and Caupolican was forced to withdraw, 
leaving many dead and wounded behind. In 1558 Don Garcia 
asked the people to settle again in Concepcion and other 
places they had formerly abandoned. Later he advanced into 
the still unexplored regions of the south and repelled another 
surprise, planned by Caupolican. Through the midst of 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 213 



marshes and dense forests the expedition made its way and 
finally reached the archipel of Chiloe, whence Don Garcia sent 
explorers to the islands that are scattered along the southern 
shores and then returned to the north. Among those first ex- 
plorers of Chiloe was the poet Alonso de Ercilla who later in 
life gained great celebrity through his poem "La Araucania," 
in which he celebrated the conquest of Chile and the heroism 
of the Araucanians. The latter became also a fruitful source 
of other poems. 

Alonso de Reinoso was commander of the lately founded 
place Canyete which Caupolican wanted to take. A submissive 
native in the commander's service secretly made arrangements 
with Caupolican to open him the gates of the fort at the time 
the Spaniards took their accustomed after dinner nap; but 
he was traitorous and communicated the secret plan to Reino- 
so. So it came that the Spaniards were in readiness when 
Caupolian appeared with his warriors at the appointed hour ; 
and horrible was the slaughter of the natives. Caupolican 
seeking refuge in a near-b}^ forest, was soon discovered and 
captured. Reinoso had him executed in a fiendish manner. 
According to poet Ercilla the unfortunate toqui was seated on 
the sharpened end of a post which was made to penetrate his 
intestines. 

Apparently Chile was quiet now and Governor Mendoza 
dedicated himself to labors of peace. He sent expeditions 
across the eastern Andes mountains to explore the regions be- 
yond where his captains founded the cities of Mendoza and 
San Juan in the present Argentine Republic. He had just 
begun to install good government in the country which he had 
pacified, when it became known that the new king of Spain, 
Philip II., son and successor of Charles L, had reappointed 
Francisco de Villagran governor of Chile. Without delay 
Don Garcia embarked for Peru. This event, which hap- 
pened in 1561, is considered as the end of Chile's conquest and 
the beginning of its colonial period. 



214 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF THE 
LA PLATA REGIONS. 
1 516 to 16 18. 

Americo Vespucio, a Florentine naval astronomer in 
Spanish services, made first two voyages to the new world in 
Spanish vessels, one with Admiral Hejeda in 1499 and the 
other with Admiral Pinzon, and then two voyages in Portu- 
guese ships to the Brazilian coasts. Thereupon he became 
grand pilot of Spain and in this position he wrote a narrative 
on the recent discoveries. A copy of this narrative came to 
Germany where Martin Waldseemueller of Freyburg, Baden, 
translated it for a bookseller of St. Diez in Lorraine. Accord- 
ing to Humboldt, Waldseemueller proposed that the new world 
be called America in memory of the author of the narrative 
which was called Cartas Americas, and that Americo Vespucio 
had nothing to do with the naming of the new world. After- 
wards this name was generally accepted by geographical writ- 
ers and even the Spaniards and Portuguese adopted it. 

Vespucio was succeeded in the office of a grand pilot by 
John Dies de Solis, who soon got an expedition in readiness 
to explore the South American continent, his main purpose 
being to find a way to the Pacific by sea. Solis commanded 
the fleet and was accompanied by his brother-in-law, F. Tor- 
res. In 1516 the expedition reached the river which now is 
called La Plata. As in reality it is a bay, Solis believed it to 
be a passage to the Pacific and on account of its sweet water 
he called it Mar Dulce, i. e. sweet sea. Ascending the river 
to the island Martin Garcia, Solis intended to take possession 
of the lands and disembarked with a few men. However, 
the natives who had observed them, were on the lookout, at- 
tacked and killed them with darts, only three escaping. F. 
Torres, the brother-in-law, was terrified, took the command 
of the fleet, and returned to Spain. 

In 1520 Hernando de Magellan, a Portuguese mariner 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 215 



who also was in Spanish services, was sent to the same river 
to find the passage which the unfortunate Solis had not dis- 
covered. He arrived at the place where Montevideo now 
stands and dispatched a small boat up the river, which reached 
the mouth of the Uruguay. Magellan was convinced that 
they were not on a passage to the Pacific and continued, there- 
fore, to follow a southerly course, navigating along the coast 
of Patagonia. While the expedition spent the winter months 
in the bay of San Julian, the men observed the large, clumsy 
feet of the native Tehuelches, for which reason they gave them 
the present name Patagonians. When next spring they con- 
tinued the voyage, they discovered the straits that bear Magel- 
lan's name. The discoverer had the good fortune to steer into 
the open sea which Balboa had discovered at Panama, into the 
ocean which he found to be calm and which he, therefore, 
called pacific. He crossed the ocean as far as the Philippine 
Islands where he landed and where he was killed by the na- 
tives. Sebastian Elcano, captain of the Victoria, now took the 
command of the three vessels that were left from the five 
which had sailed from Spain. He continued in a westerly 
direction, visited the. Molucca Islands, crossed the Indian 
ocean, sailed around South Africa, and reached Spain three 
years after the departure. The Victoria was the only ves- 
sel that returned, of the 265 men that had left Spain only 17 
survived. Sebastian Elcano in the Victoria furnished the first 
practical proof that the earth is round. He gave a report of 
the discoveries of Magellan and of the wealth of the islands 
visited. The result was that other expeditions were organized 
in the course of time. 

In 1525 Sebastian Gabot set sail to verify the discoveries 
of Magellan ; but arriving at the La Plata he resolved to stay 
there and to explore that region. He ascended the Uruguay 
river as far as the conflux of the San Juan, where he found 
one of the companions of Solis whom the natives had held all 
these ten years. Then Gabot explored the shores of present 



2;g 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Buenos x\ires, ascended the Parana river to the place where 
the Tercero empties its waters into it, and there constructed 
the fort which he called Sancti-Spiritus. Later he ascended 
the Paraguay river also. Among the Indians who inhabited 
these, especially the lower, regions were many who wore feath- 
ers of various colors, beautified with pieces of silver and gold, 
the first predominating. For this reason Gabot renamed the 
lower waters, changing the name Mar Dulce into that of La 
Plata (the silver). The La Plata river is formed by the Pa- 
rana and the Uruguay. Having been disappointed in his ex- 
pectation concerning reenforcements from Spain, the com- 
mander started on the homeward trip, leaving a garrison of 
170 men in fort Sancti Spiritus. After Gabot's departure 
the native chief Manegore became covetous ; he wanted to 
win for himself Lucia Miranda, the wife of a soldier of the 
garrison. So one night he entered the fort with his men and 
assassinated all the Spaniards who were there then, sparing 
the women and children. Those who had been absent and 
survived left the ruins and went to Brazil and later to Spain, 
where they arrived in 1530. Fort Sancti Spiritus had been 
the first establishment on Argentine soil. 

The Spanish government at this time was thoroughly en- 
gaged in Mexican affairs and for a number of years left the 
South American countries to themselves ; however, the cap- 
ture of Cuzco in 1533 drew the king's attention again to the 
southern continent. As he did not have the funds to equip 
expeditions, he accepted the offer of Don Peter de Mendosa 
to meet such an expense. This gentleman got fourteen ships 
in readiness in which 2650 persons embarked, and also pro- 
cured the first horses to propagate the species in the new 
world. The expensive expedition left Spain for the river 
La Plata in 1534 and in February of the following year they 
founded a town, which they called Buenos Aires, i. e. good 
aires or breezes. The natives of the vicinity were kind to- 
wards the strangers and supplied them with food. But when 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 217 



the Spaniards began to treat them unjustly, they broke off all 
relations with them. The consequence was that Mendoza was 
embarrassed by the lack of the most necessary provisions and 
resolved to attack the natives by force. However, these 
routed the Spaniards and at the close of June of the same 
year attacked Buenos Aires and burned the larger part of the 
town. Mendoza then left the place and, being tired of the 
constant resistance of the natives, departed for Spain and died 
on the way. When the king heard of these sad occurrences, 
he sent Alonso de Cabrera to bring help and reenforcement to 
those who had stayed in the La Plata region. 

In the interval Ayolas became the leader of the remnant 
of Spaniards and went north, ascending the rivers Parana and 
Paraguay up to the tributary Pilcomayo, where he founded a 
town which he called Asuncion and which later became the 
capital of Paraguay. Leaving Asuncion in charge of Sr. Ira- 
la, Ayolas went west, penetrating into Chaco to place himself 
into communication with the conquerors of Peru. Later when 
he was on his return trip to Asuncion, Ayolas was waylaid 
and murdered by the Indians, running the fate of unfortunate 
Solis. Irala had dedicated himself in the mean time to the 
organization and welfare of the colony of Asuncion, and as 
soon as the tragic end of Ayolas became known the colonists 
elected him their governor ; for he was the man suitable for the 
occasion and enjoyed the confidence and good will of the peo- 
ple. His first endeavor was to strengthen the Asuncion col- 
ony by organizing a municipal board, by building a church, 
and by attracting to the colony all that was left from the 
Buenos Aires disaster. Then he divided the natives into com- 
iendas and apportioned them to the colonists, bringing thus the 
colony into a state of prosperity. In 1542 Irala was replaced 
by Cabeza de Vaca. This gentleman had received conces- 
sions from the king and had left Cadiz with 400 soldiers in 
four vessels. Having arrived at ruined Buenos Aires Cabeza 
de Vaca marched with his troops over land to Asuncion, a dis- 



218 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



tance of 650 miles, without losing a single man. On account 
of the rash and imprudent acts of this governor, the colonists 
opposed him vehemently. Later he was deposed and sent to 
Spain. 

Irala was again proclaimed governor. "He may be truly 
called the founder of Spanish regime in that section of the 
continent. During his second term the first wool-bearing ani- 
mals, sheep and pacos, were introduced into the colony and the 
Argentine city of Santiago was founded. Irala died at an 
advanced age, loved and respected by all. A man by the name 
of Zarate was appointed governor of the La Plata territory 
by the Peruvian viceroy and went to Spain to obtain the king's 
confirmation. During his journey John de Gar ay became 
prominent and founded the city of Santa Fe in 1573. Zarate 
returned from Spain with 500 men, 400 cows, so many sheep, 
500 goats, and 300 horses. At his arrival at the La Plata Garay 
went to receive him and to supply him with provisions and 
forage. When Zarate arrived at Asuncion, he assumed the 
attitude which Cabeza de Vasa had displayed before him. He 
became very dominating, recalled what others had introduced, 
whereby he attracted the hatred of the colonists and soon ran 
the risk of losing his life. He made his testament, named 
for his successor the man who would marry his daughter, 
Senorita Juana, and appointed Garay as executor of the testa- 
ment. Zarate died, hated by all. Garay found that the 
daughter had entered into love relations with Torres de Vera 
who married her. Torres having thus become governor, ap- 
pointed Garay as his subaltern. Garay founded two towns, 
one he named Villa Rica and the other Santiago de Gerez. 
Then he went to the shores of Buenos Aires and in 1580 defin- 
itively founded the city that bears this name. In his battles 
with the natives of the vicinity he won an important victory, 
whereupon they became willing to make peace and he was able 
to organize the government of the new city. Desirous to re- 
turn to Asuncion, he chose to make his way through the ter- 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 



219 



ritory that lies between the rivers Parana and Uruguay and 
there Garay and the 39 men and women who followed him, 
were attacked and butchered by the Minnanes. Garay had 
been one of the brightest personages of the conquest. Govern- 
or Torres became desirous to appropriate to himself the hors- 
es of the colon)'' which constituted about the only real wealth 
of the country at that time. The colonists brought complaints 
before the audiencia and were successful, whereupon Torres 
de Vera became dissatisfied with affairs, resigned his position, 
and embarked for Spain. 

Besides the recorded expeditions which were under- 
taken to explore the Argentine territory, others were set 
on foot by Peru and Chile. The first viceroys of Peru 
recompensed the officers who assisted them in their Peru- 
vian enterprises, by giving them distinct commissions to 
carry out in the territory of Tucuman, the northwest sec- 
tion of present Argentina. In 1542, for instance, Diego 
de Rojas undertook an exploring expedition in that sec- 
tion and advanced as far as the Parana river. He succumbed 
to the hardships, his subaltern was assassinated by his soldiers, 
and the rest of the expeditioners returned to Peru. Eight 
years later Nunyez de Prado was ordered by Viceroy. La Gasca 
of Peru again to take up the explorations which Rojas had 
begun. In 1550 Prado marched out with 400 men and in the 
territory governed by the native chief Tucumanao he founded 
the city of Barco. A number of expeditions also started from 
Chile in the latter half of the 16th century which resulted in 
the founding of cities and towns in the mountainous regions 
and on the plains of Argentina; such as Mendoza, San Juan 
and others. 

After the departure of Torres de Vera the people of Asun- 
cion agreed to elect H ernandarias to the office of governor. 
This gentleman was the first native-born man, or Creole, who 
was elected to that position and he held the office three terms 
between the years 1591 and 1618, the first lasting three years. 



220 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



During his second term Hernandarias undertook an expedi- 
tion southward through Patagonia and reached the strait of 
Magellan by land. There the natives overpowered him and 
his men and made them prisoners. The governor, however, 
freed himself, turned upon his enemies with the utmost bold- 
ness, routed them, and liberated his companions. He added 
six hundred miles to the conquered territory. In 1615 Her- 
nandarias was elected go\-ernor for the third time. Revolu- 
tionary movements had been going on in favor of the natives 
and were concluded by the governor in the right sense, by 
conceding them the rights of citizens. At his petition Para- 
guay received her own government, independent of that of 
La Plata, i. e. Argentina. Hernandarias died in Santa Fe of 
Argentina, full of merits and highly honored. With his death 
in 1618 the first period of Argentine and Paraguayan history 
terminates. 

The colony of Asuncion succeeded best in the beginning 
of Spanish operations in the La Plata regions. From there 
expeditions were undertaken to found cities on the banks of 
the Paraguay and Parana rivers ; and even Buenos Aires re- 
ceived its permanent existence from Asuncion. However, no 
operations were at that time undertaken in the regions east of 
the Uruguay river which forms the limits between i\rgentina 
and Uruguay. Uruguay, therefore, and the city of Montevi- 
deo play as yet no part in this period ; Montevideo was found- 
ed as late as 1726. The naming of its locality, however, had 
an early date. "When Magellan started out on his world-re- 
nowned voyage in 1520, when he entered the waters which he 
called Mar Dulce, sailing along the eastern or Uruguayan 
shores, a Portuguese sailor saw a hill for the first time since 
they had left Spain and exclaimed : "Monte vide eu !" From 
this expression which means "I saw a hill," the name Monte- 
video was constructed. Hence the locality bore the name 200 
years before the city was founded, during which time, how- 
ever, some colonial endeavors were started there. 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 221 



DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF BRAZIL. 
1499 ^ 1577- 

When Alonso de Hejeda had explored the northern coasts 
of South America in 1499 he navigated in a southeastly direc- 
tion until he reached the mouth of the Amazon and passed 
even beyond it. Hejeda must, therefore, be considered as the 
true discoverer of Brazil. In 1500 Peter Alvarez Cabral, a 
Portuguese marshal, being on his voyage to India, accidentally 
was carried to these same shores, landed at a place he called 
Seguro, near the present city of Bahia, and took possession of 
the land in the name of his king. Cabral then continued his 
trip to India. The government of Portugal was kept busy 
with conquests in the East Indias and apparently did not think 
of South America. Nevertheless, diverse expeditioners occa- 
sionally visited the eastern coasts to gather a certain dye-wood 
which grows there very abundantly and which looks like burn- 
ing wood. As burning wood is called braza in Spanish the 
dye-wood was called brazil from its color, a name which after- 
wards was applied to the whole country. 

When the King of Portugal, John III., learned that the 
Spanish government intended to found establishments in the 
La Plata region, he equipped five ships, manning them with 
400 soldiers, and put them at the command of Martin Alfonso 
de Sousa, with the order to occupy the coasts of which Mar- 
shal Cabral had taken possession. De Sousa having landed 
where now Pernambuco stands, dispatched one of his cap- 
tains to explore the northern coast up to the river Amazon, 
while he followed the southern coast as far as the beautiful 
bay of Rio de Janeiro. Here he ordered the construction of 
two brigs which should go to the La Plata to plant colonies. 
Having been opposed by a storm which capsized his main ves- 
sel, he sent his brother Peter Lopez to reconnoiter the La 



222 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Plata shores, while he founded the colony San Vicente on the 
Atlantic coast. 

King John III., fearing certain projects of French mer- 
chants who planned to establish themselves in Brazil, conclud- 
ed to divide the country into twelve captaincies-general, whose 
governments he intrusted to various Portuguese gentlemen. 
Some captaincies, as e. g. San Visente, prospered and their 
wealth developed with the cultivation of the sugar cane. But 
the long distances that separated them from one another and 
the obstinate resistance of the natives, hindered the progress of 
some ; wherefore the king repealed his former action and in 

1 549 organized all the captaincies into one general government. 
Thomas de Sousa, a man who had distinguished himself by his 
talents and valor displayed in Asia and Africa, was appointed 
governor. He left for Brazil with an expedition of six vessels, 
600 volunteers, and 400 pardoned criminals. Also the first six 
Jesuits who came to Brazil accompanied him. Having landed 
at the bay of Bahia, Thomas de Sousa founded the city which 
bears that name. There he found a countryman who since 
years had resided on that coast and who, bearing the name 
caramuru, i. e. creator of fire, was regarded by the natives as 
a supernatural being. With the *aid of this man and of the 
Jesuits Sousa could give stability to the colony which pro- 
gressed rapidly and increased in numbers by new arrivals. In 

1550 Bahia became the seat of a bishop and for a long time it 
was the capital of Brazil. The government of Sousa, though 
he was prudent, was disturbed by bloody wars with the In- 
dians. After him Duarte da Acosta was appointed governor. 

In France the followers of Calvin were persecuted and 
thought of seeking a place of refuge in Brazil. Nicolas Durand 
de Villegaignon, a gentleman among the Calvinists, organized 
an expedition in 1555 and came to build a fort on one of the 
small islands of the Rio de Janeiro bay, giving the surround- 
ing country the name of Anartic France. Two years later an 
additional force of 300 Calvinists under the orders of a neph- 



DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS 223 



ew of Villegaignon was sent by the French king to the same 
place. However, when discord arose and spread among the 
Calvinists, the leader left a garrison of 100 men in the fort and 
embarked for Europe. 

The Portuguese Court believed that Duarte da Acosta had 
not conducted himself with propriety and in his stead ap- 
pointed Men de Saa governor of Brazil, with the order to expel 
the French. The Calvinists were attacked and found them- 
selves obliged to seek an asylum on the continent ; here they 
held their ground for some time against the attacks of the 
Portuguese. However, when the latter had been re-enforced, 
they defeated the French and obliged them to embark for En- 
rope in 1567. After the expulsion of the French the Portu- 
guese founded a city on the bay of Rio de Janeiro which they 
gave the name of San Sebastian in honor of their new king, 
which, however, the inhabitants afterwards named after the 
bay. The conquest of Brazil, however, was not complete until 
tenacious wars with the natives had been waged for many 
years. The country was for some time again divided and this 
time into two large captaincies, whose capitals were Bahia 
and Rio de Janeiro. However, four years later it was reunited 
under one government at whose head Louis de Brito E Almei- 
do was placed who in 1577 established his residence in Bahia. 
Only in 1773 Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Brazil defin 7 
itely. 



PERIOD V 

COLONIAL TIMES 
1544 to 18 2 1 



COLONIAL PERIOD OF PERU. 
1544 to 182 1. 

buRiNG the colonial period the South American countries 
were governed by Spain and Portugal. The governments 
of these countries sent their representatives and officers to the 
various colonies to manage and control the same and to enforce 
the laws and ordinances that were issued by them. Spain 
naturally made Peru the principal seat of her South American 
government ; for Peru was of higher importance than any 
other colony, having had the best native government and hav- 
ing yielded the most wealth. Let us then keep in mind that 
the other Spanish South American colonies were largely con- 
trolled by the government of Peru and let us primarily 
acquaint ourselves with her colonial policy. Towards the mid- 
dle of the 16th century King Charles I. thought it best to raise 
Peru to the rank of a viceroyship. The king took this step 
because through responsible and just persons he had received 
information about the atrocities committed by the conquerors 
— the cruel treatment they meted out to the natives — and about 
the continual quarrels and strifes in which the Spaniards them- 
selves lived. He, therefore, sent Blasco Nunyez de Vela as 
first viceroy to Lima, a man of rank, of firm character and in- 
tegrity, and inflexible in the discharge of his duties, but of lit- 
tle experience and practical ability. He also established, in 
Lima, a royal audiencia which was the highest court of justice 
and served at the same time as a sort of council of state. And 
finally the king had a code of laws formulated by which Peru 
and the other colonies should be governed. In these he con- 
ceded the same rights to the natives as the Spaniards enjoyed, 
declared them free, and prohibited the mita. 



15 



226 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Before we proceed with the historical events, let us make 
an endeavor to understand the terms encomienda and mita, as 
they stand for institutions that vitally characterized Spanish 
colonial life. The incomiendas provided for the partition of 
the lands and the native people and all they had, among the 
conquerors and their companions. These then did not receive 
simply their part of the booty that was taken in the conquests, 
but also the lands and all there was on them. Each encomien- 
da included one or more towns and many of them were as 
large as an actual province. The encomenderos, i. e. the 
Spaniards in their possessions, were feudal lords in their re- 
spective encomiendas. Thus conditions of the Middle Ages 
were rooted into the South American life and they have not 
been obliterated entirely up to the present day. Those Span- 
ish lords exercised jurisdiction over their native subjects and 
the right to demand contributions from them, contributions 
besides and above the taxes that were collected from the. na- 
tives for the Spanish Court. The encomenderos on their part 
were under the obligations to protect their subjects and to 
make them observe a Christian way of living; but they were 
loathe to do either and used the natives to enrich themselves. 
— The mita was a forced labor which the Spaniards demanded 
.from the natives for a definite time, generally for one year. 
For this service a number of natives was annually assorted in 
every encomienda, as many as were necessary, to perform the 
labors which the proprietors wanted to have done. They la- 
bored principally in mines and on cane and coca plantations 
and earned two reales or about 12 cents a day ; they also 
worked on Sundays. Besides this labor, the natives were 
obliged to serve under the name of pongos in the houses of 
the supervisors, the priests, and the native chiefs. It is esti- 
mated that there were about 60,000 natives continually en- 
gaged in this last named service. This mita the king deter- 
mined to abolish. 

As soon as the Spaniards took notice of the king's ordi- 



COLONIAL TIMES 



227 



nances and saw that they would be losers, in case the laws were 
enforced, they became alarmed. The uneasiness reached its 
height when they noticed that Nunyez de Vela began to set the 
poor natives free. Then there was an uprising in Cuzco and 
the revolters put Gonzalo Pizarro at the head of the movement 
which quickly spread all over Peru. To suppress the rising 
tide the viceroy committed bloody acts in Lima and when mem- 
bers of the audiencia conspired against him he discharged 
them. He then sent a report of the happenings to the home 
government. Gonzalo marched at once to the capital and de- 
manded that the government be delivered to the audiencia 
which accepted it. Nunyez de Vela was made a prisoner and 
sent to Spain. Having left Lima he managed that those who 
had him in charge allowed him to escape. Presently he ap- 
peared in the north of Peru where he raised a small army to 
attack the revolters. When Gonzalo heard of this he deter- 
mined to meet him in battle and marched with his force until 
he came into the vicinity of Quito where the engagement took 
place and where fate turned against Vela, for he was defeated 
and killed. Gonzalo Pizarro returned to Lima, entered the 
capital triumphantly, and then sent a commission to Spain to 
give account of what had happened and simultaneously to pe- 
tition the king to appoint him viceroy ; for as such he already 
had begun to act. But before this commission reached Madrid, 
the king had been advised by the Lima audiencia concerning 
Nunyez de Vela's imprisonment and had sent Peter de La Gas- 
ca, a clergyman, to save the situation. This man was known 
for his sagacity, prudence, and learning. 

La Gasca, having arrived at Panama where he remained 
some time, communicated his mission to Gonzalo Pizarro. 
Employing his ability in a somewhat secret manner, he suc- 
ceeded in bringing a change of opinion in Lima about and in 
inducing Gonzalo's soldiers to desert him. In the meanwhile 
a rival of Gonzalo Pizarro, Zenteno by name, revolted against 
him at Cuzco. Gonzalo now found himself between two en- 



228 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



emies, Zentena in Cuzco and La Gasca coming from Panama. 
Thus he resolved^ to withdraw into the mountains, first to fight 
the one and then the other. He successfully routed Zenteno's 
force and then went to Cuzco to await La Gasca's troops. In 
the vicinity of this city the opposing forces met in a desperate 
struggle. The fortune of battle- adhered to the new govern- 
or's banners, Gonzalo was made a prisoner, as was also his 
counselor, Carbajal. Both were beheaded. Carbajal's body 
was cut into four sections, which were hung up in the four 
roads that lead out of Cuzco, while the heads of the two were 
taken to Lima and exposed to public. view. 

Peter de La Gasca governed quietly for about two years, 
during which time he regulated the tribute, the contribution 
which the natives paid. He also diminished the forced work 
to which they were subjected, but did not abolish it entirely 
for fear of new revolts. Having thus far accomplished his 
mission, La Gasca returned to Spain as poor as he had come, 
not taking with him one mite. 

During an interregnum the royal audiencia took charge 
of the government and, desirous to employ their authority in 
favor of the natives, they decreed the abolition of the mita. 
This measure aroused the passions of those who had profited 
by this unjust labor and they again conspired in Lima, in Cuz- 
co, and in Potosi. Deep dissatisfaction ran once more through 
the whole country. In the capital the conspiration was sup- 
pressed, but not in the other cities ; another war broke out. 
The leaders of the revolution turned one against another ; 
many assassinations were committed, many battles fought ; 
anarchy reigned throughout the south of Peru. However, at 
last the audiencia and the new viceroy, Andrew Hurtado de 
Mendoza, who arrived at this time, were successful in reestab- 
lishing order and in making the authority of the laws to tri- 
umph. With this re-arrangement of orderly conditions the 
civil wars came to a close that had been carried on since the 



COLONIAL TIMES 



229 



rupture of Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, i. e. 
since 1536. 

We shall not enumerate the many viceroys who managed 
the affairs of Peru and supervised the other colonies, but we 
must present some leading characters and the principal events 
that transpired in this period of Peruvian history. The vice- 
royalty was created in 1544 and continued to exist in Peru 277 
years. Among the men who held this exalted position some 
were counts, some marquises, two princes, two archbishops, 
one duke, and one bishop. The arrival of a new viceroy at 
Lima was celebrated with a pomp and magnificence which are 
not any more in use in our times. The functionaries were 
respected and reverenced by the people as highly as the king 
himself, and they displayed a gorgeous splendor and grandeur. 
Still today the Peruvian presidents preserve the bright and 
costly uniforms of those times, the royal coach, and the out- 
fits of the palace guards. Many viceroys united political abil- 
ity with nobility of character and unflinching honesty, while 
others made themselves useful by promoting public works, 
which are in existence still today and are evidences of great 
skill. 

The natives made various attempts during this period to 
restore the empire of the Incas. Already the third viceroy, 
Hurtado de Mendoza, had to take steps to prevent such at- 
tempts. He invited a descendant of the Inca emperors to 
come to Lima, obliged him to renounce his rights as an Inca 
in favor of the Spanish crown, and assigned to him a province 
with a fertile valley as recompense and for his maintenance. 
But the Inca died from remorse and grief three years later. 
Another viceroy condemned to death the last son of an Inca 
on account of the supposed crime of having desired to re- 
establish the Inca empire. But in spite of these precautions 
serious disturbances broke out towards the middle of the 17th 
century. The natives of Tucuman in Argentina and of La 
Paz arose. They were led by Bohorgues who also claimed to 



230 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



be a descendant of the Peruvian emperors ; but the movement 
was suffocated by the viceroy who at that time governed Peru. 
Three other seditions of the natives followed and failed. How- 
ever in 1780 a more dangerous outbreak occurred in the prov- 
ince of Tinta, where the natives proclaimed Tupac Amaru 
their Inca and where multitudes of natives enlisted under the 
banners of the revolutionists. They made great headway, con- 
quering one province after the other until six were in their 
possession. But when they were attacked simultaneously by 
the armies of Lima and of Buenos Aires, they came to naught, 
mainly on account of lack of military discipline and of arms. 
The natives were routed, Tupac Amaru fell into the hands of 
the Spaniards, and inhuman vengeance was meted out to him. 
His tongue was cut out and he had to see how his wife, his 
children one after the other, and some of his principal chiefs 
were slain before him ; then while still alive he was cut into 
four pieces. The natives became infuriated at such acts of 
cruelty and again revolted. 

In the year 1570 a Tribunal of Inquisition was established 
in Lima, which flourished in the succeeding centuries and which 
purposed to suppress every free thought and independent, sen- 
timent in the colonies. This tribunal was to judge every one 
who was accused of not professing the Roman Catholic faith 
or of entertaining a thought or belief which the church called 
heresy, or one who had committed a profanation against the 
church or who possessed one of the prohibited books. The 
list of prohibited Protestant books, including the Bible, and 
books of liberal contents increased to 5000 volumes in the 
course of time. The tribunal sent its emissaries throughout 
Peru and the other colonies, i. e. Chile, Argentina, Ecuador, 
Xew Granada etc., to spy out offending persons and such 
persons were readily singled out and announced by devoted 
adherents of the established church. Such persons were either 
punished with spiritual afflictions or were required to pay fees, 
or were taken to Lima and thrown into the towers or dungeons 



COLONIAL TIMES 



231 



of the Inquisition. Often death was decreed. In the public 
executions which they called "outos de fe," the victims were 
burned to death. It is reported that in a course of twenty 
years the tribunal undertook five autos de fe and that in one 
of these holocausts forty persons were reduced to ashes. In 
this way the church kept the word of God, Protestant thoughts, 
and liberal sentiments out of the Spanish colonies. It suc- 
ceeded in its domination until the people themselves broke the 
chains of fanaticism and despotism, as we shall learn in the 
next period. 

Trade and Commerce stayed in their infancy, being ham- 
pered by greed and monopoly. The encomenderos had ob- 
tained the privilege to sell to the natives of their districts all 
the merchandises they might need, which concession had been 
granted them by the government in good faith in an early sea- 
son of the colonial times. But many encomenderos came to 
abuse this concession ; for they sold to the country folks such 
defective, worthless goods, as could not be disposed of in the 
cities, and that at high prices. By and by hucksters went into 
the interior of the country to trade their stuff for the values 
of the natives. Foreign commerce was regulated by rigid 
laws. As foreigners were prohibited by law to immigrate into 
Peru and the other colonies, so also was trading with foreign- 
ers forbidden ; thus the colonial dealers could do business only 
with Spanish merchants. This monopoly was carried to such 
an extent that the entire commerce of the colonies was in the 
hands and control of certain commercial houses of Spain, and 
these fixed the prices. There was also a strict regulation of 
industries and even of agriculture. So for instance it was 
prohibited in the colonies to cultivate such plants and grains 
as were raised in Spain, so that many necessaries of life were 
brought from the homeland and agriculture in the colonies 
was neglected. At this time already the fruitful fields and 
the irrigation viaducts of the Incas came into neglect in Peru. 
The law protected the exploitation of the mines only, and the 



232 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 

precious metals, gold , and silver, were shipped to Spain in 
exchange of the products of agriculture and the merchandises 
of the homeland. We repeat, Spanish merchants had the ex- 
clusive control of this commerce and the colonists had to 
purchase at the prices the speculators demanded. 

Besides Mexico, Peru was doubtless the richest Spanish 
colony. By land the Peruvians traded with the colonies of the 
La Plata region, whither they sent from Arekipa, whiskey, 
wines, oil, and sugar, and from Cuzco dressgoods and clothing, 
amounting to the value of about 2,000,000 pesos annually. By 
sea Peru traded with Chile, which country in return sent prod- 
ucts, mainly wheat, to the amount of 6,000,000 pesos. Wheat 
was the principal product of Chile of which it raised an annual 
crop of 650,000 bushels. Also with the colony of New Gran- 
ada the Peruvian viceroyship carried on a trade both by land 
and by sea ; by land via Quito, by sea to Guayaquil and Pana- 
ma. To Spain Peru sent, besides precious metals, a small 
quantity of vicuna wool and of cascarillas, as these were not 
found in the homeland. Comparing imports with exports an 
annual difference of more than 1,000,000 pesos resulted against 
Peru. — Towards the close of the colonial times the annual 
income of Peru amounted to 9,000,000 pesos, one-third, or 
3,000,000 pesos, of which was received from the commerce 
with the adjacent colonies. The 6,000,000 pesos of Peruvian 
revenue were received 1. from the personal contributions of 
the natives, which amounted to 8 pesos per head; 2. from 
custom house receipts which were paid for all the articles of 
commerce; 3. from the fifth part of the mineral products 
which was paid by the owners of private mines ; 4. from the 
taxes paid for the sale of strong drinks ; such as, cider, whiskey 
etc. ; and 5. from taxes paid for such articles as stamped 
paper, cards, tobacco, and quicksilver. Of the 6,000,000 pesos 
thus received the fifth part was sent to Spain, as that part 
was due the crown; 4,500,000 pesos generally sufficed to sup- 
ply the needs of the country ; some remittances were sent to 



COLONIAL TIMES 



233 



Chile and other colonies to help them; and but a small sum 
went as a surplus into the treasury. But when towards the 
close of this period the revolutionists fought for the independ- 
ence of the colonies, the viceroys made loans and contracted 
debts which soon amounted to 18,000,000 pesos. 

Peru had many rich mines. Those of Potosi were early 
discovered and proved to be immensely rich. They are located 
on Bolivian territory and are reported to have yielded 600,000,- 
000 dollars worth of silver. Also the silver mines of Pasco 
in Peru are said to have been fabulously rich. The San An- 
tonio mines furnished a daily income of 1400 pesos. The 
celebrated mine of Reantalla yielded 2500 pesos per box. 
Half a dozen other mines produced about 1,000,000 dollars a 
year. 

During her colonial life Peru was, besides the revolts, en- 
dangered from without by English and Dutch pirates and from 
within by earthquakes. Pirates appeared on the west coast, 
plundered towns and cities and robbed whatever they could 
lay their hands on. In 1577 the English sailor Drake, the ter- 
ror of the colonists, sailed into the Pacific and plundered ships 
and towns on the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico, came as 
far north as the bays of San Francisco and even of Van 
Couver of which he took possession in the name of the Eng- 
lish queen. Laden with plunder he crossed the Pacific and the 
Indian oceans, doubled Cape of Good Hope and returned to 
England, being the second to circumnavigate the globe. A 
little later the Englishman, Cavendish, repeated those depreda- 
tions and also returned to England laden with treasures. Dutch 
pirates likewise appeared and continued their incursions until 
the middle of the 17th century. The Peruvian viceroys 
equipped fleets to protect the Spanish ports and to pursue 
the corsairs. 

Destructive earthquakes have imperiled life and property 
on South America's west coast quite frequently. The memor- 
able earthquake of 1746 destroyed Lima, submerged Callao, 



234 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Lima's port, below the waters of the Pacific, and ruined a 
number of other towns. Viceroy Velasco, who governed at that 
time, rebuilt Lima and laid the first stone to the fort of new 
Callao ; he also founded the town of Miraflores. Earth- 
quakes are on that west coast a constant cause of alarm, for 
they are destructive of property and of human life. 

The area of Peru underwent changes at various times. 
Until the year 1718 it had extended towards the north up to 
Panama ; but in that year the Spanish government separated 
some provinces in the north from it and with them created 
the viceroyship of New Granada, in which the presidency of 
Quito was included. In 1773 the Spanish government decreed 
that Chile which, until then had been a dependency of the Pe- 
ruvian viceroyship, become a captaincy-general and independ- 
ent of Peru, with the understanding, however, that the govern- 
ing captain-general consult with the Peruvian viceroy in mil- 
itary matters. Four years later, in 1777, the viceroyship of 
Buenos Aires was created, including in its area some territor- 
ies which hitherto had belonged to Peru, namely Puno and 
Upper Peru (Bolivia). In 1796 a re-arrangement of the Pe- 
ruvian territory was undertaken, whose divisions until then 
had been encomiendas. An encomienda, as the reader will 
know, was a district which a conqueror or explorer had re- 
ceived for his services. In the above named year - Peru was 
divided into intendencias and these were subdivided into depar- 
tamentos ; an intendencia is equal to a province. Towards 
the close of the colonial times, i. e. at the beginning of the' 19th 
century the northern province of Guayaquil and the southeast- 
ern intendencia of Puno were incorporated into the Peruvian 
territory. Thus Peru's greatest length extended through 
21 ^4 degrees of latitude or it was almost 1500 miles. Lima, 
the capital, having had 23,554 inhabitants in 1610, constantly 
increased in population in the two following centuries and 
was the largest city of South America during the colonial 
period. It had a palace for the viceroy and another for the 



COLONIAL TIMES 



235 



archbishop, more than one hundred temples, twenty-four con- 
vents and seven monasteries, twelve hospitals, one university 
consisting of four colleges, and a few elementary schools in 
the convents. The total population of Peru at the close of 
this period, was 1,500,000 persons, one-half of whom were 
natives and more than 40,000 were negroes. What had be- 
come, in the bygone centuries, of the seven to eight million 
Inca Peruvians, who, according to the historian La Rosa Toro, 
had lived and prospered on the same soil before the Spanish 
invasion ? 

Though the colonial life was quite plain, the people used 
costly utensils. The service of the table throughout was of 
silver, not only among the rich, but also among the middle 
classes, as clay and porcelain dishes were scarcely in use. 
Also natives, though they lived but in huts, ate their food from 
massive silver dishes. Even the most common household 
utensils and the tires of carriage wheels were made of solid 
silver. In the houses of the rich, water for making mate was 
boiled in silver pots and the mate was served in silver cups. 
Mate, which was imported from Paraguay, or chocolate were 
taken in the evening and fresco or ptisan in the morning. The 
dress of those times was plain and odd. The ladies liked pro- 
fuse extravagance and embellishment, especially the senyoritas 
of Lima. 

The domestic entertainments consisted in card playing 
and dancing, and the public diversions in bull and cock fights, 
in theatrical plays, and in the gorgeous processions in which 
the church exhibited her visible glory. However, Madrid was 
the center of attraction, and they looked upon it as upon the 
home city. The Peruvian colonists, consequently, instead of lov- 
ing their true home, their native city and country, admired the 
residential city of their sovereign with a deep regard. Hence 
they received the royal package from Madrid with tailings of 
bells and great merry-making ; this package was the mail which 
brought the important news of the health of the king. 



236 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



COLONIAL TIMES OF CHILE. 
1561 to 1810. 

To carry the conquest of Chile to completion, cost Spain 
more money and men than the conquest of the rest of America. 
The Araucanians never submitted to foreign control for fear 
of being suppressed and of groaning under the hard lashes of 
the Spanish taxmasters and encomenderos, as their country- 
men of northern Chile did. They loved liberty and independ- 
ence and preferred death to the yoke. The Araucanians again 
and again renewed the war, though in the course of centuries 
their primitive vigor weakened and the war degenerated into 
pillage. Being already masters of the horse, they undertook 
raids into Spanish settlements, robbing and destroying all they 
could find. The Spaniards in turn invaded the territory of 
the natives to recover their losses and to make captives whom 
they might oblige to work on their encomiendas. This kind of 
war became profitable to the Spaniards and it was in a sense 
in their interest to prolong it. 

In 1598 the Araucanians arose in great strength. The 
famous Spanish soldier Alonso de Sotomayor who had come 
from Spain with 600 warriors, was not able in an obstinate 
warfare of nine years to overcome them. Then, after those 
stormy years, a calm set in and, trusting in the apparent quie- 
tude, the new governor undertook a journey through Arauca- 
nia, accompanied by 60 soldiers, 3 priests, and a number of 
servants. One night the company lodged in a place called 
Curavalva; the Araucanians of the vicinity surprised them at 
dawn and killed the governor and his following with the excep- 
tion of but two who escaped to tell the story. This became 
the signal for a new general uprising of the Araucanian tribes 
under the leadership of Paillamacu and Pelantaru. The 
Spaniards were in this horrible war forced to abandon the 
seven towns which they had built south of the Biobio and had 



COLONIAL TIMES 



237 



to see them destroyed; Villarica, Osorno, Valdivia, and flour- 
ishing - Imperial fell after memorable sieges. Captain J. R. 
Lisperger succumbed in Boroa with more than 160 soldiers. 
Then Garcia Ramon, a great military hero, became governor 
and arrived with a division of 3000 soldiers to subdue the hor- 
rible Araucanians. But these, being elated with victory, re- 
pelled every attack and defeated Ramon and his army. 

To pacify Chile the new king of Spain, Philip III., who 
reigned from 1598 to 1621, thought of a new scheme. Instead 
of unsuccessful wars with all their losses in men and money, 
he thought* the audiencia might assist in introducing peaceful 
measures. He ordered the audiencia which for some time had 
held sessions in Concepcion, again to return to Santiago. This 
tribunal was composed of one regent, one senior, three judges, 
and one attorney general, and it was presided over by the gov- 
ernor who for that reason was also called president. The du- 
ties of the audiencia were not simply to administer justice to 
.those who were in litigation, but also to assist in the higher 
functions of government and in matters of war. They sent a 
commission to the Araucanians to consult with them, but the 
counselors accomplished nothing in the effort of pacifying 
those people. Then Louis de Valdivia, a Jesuit, believed mis- 
sionary endeavors to be more effective than the arm of the sol- 
dier or the council of the jurist. According to his plan the 
Spanish troops should be prohibited to cross the Biobio and 
the submission of the natives be intrusted to missionaries who 
should accomplish the desired end through mission work and 
preaching. Valdivia went to Spain in 1612 to lay his ideas 
before the king and returned to Chile with the authority to 
put them into practice ; this, however, should be done in har- 
mony with Governor Alonso de Ribera. Military men and 
encomenderos opposed this project, because they believed it 
to be ineffective and even harmful ; thus severe disputes took 
place in this matter. Nevertheless the plan of Valdivia was 
acted upon and the Araucanians accepted the new arrange- 



238 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



merit. For some lime the Jesuits labored quietly, but when 
one day a few women of chief Ancanamum left him to seek 
refuge in a near-by mission station, the storm again broke 
loose. The chief requested the missionaries to return his 
wives ; but the Jesuits were not willing to surrender more than 
one. Ancanamum took revenge, had three Jesuit missionaries 
killed, and provoked an almost general rise among the trib.es. 
Thereupon Governor Blanco, who was in office now, entered 
Araucania with fire and sword, applauded by military men 
and encomenderos. However, neither at this time could the 
Spaniards gain advantages, though the war continued a long 
time and was carried on with great ardor. So they finally 
decided to take the river Biobio for the southern limit of their 
territory, erected forts on its banks, and distributed their 
forces in these forts. One day in 1629 the Araucanians swept 
down upon fort Yumbel and killed 100 soldiers. Just then 
F. Leo de la Vega, an able and famous soldier of the Flanders 
wars, arrived as governor. He recruited new troops in San- 
tiago, organizing an army of 800 men, and marched south to 
avenge the Yumbel disaster. La Vega met the Araucanians 
at Albarrada and routed them (1631) ; they, however, con- 
tinued the war. To prosecute it the governor demanded new 
levies of men, horses and money from the people of Santiago, 
who, however, being already impoverished by the frequent 
demands and exactions, this time refused more contributions 
and entered into hot disputes with the governor. 

La Vega's successor, Marquis Bailes, at last began to treat 
the Araucanians as men who were on equal footing with the 
Spaniards. That was a new thought ; the gallant Araucanians 
had taught the proud Peninsulars at least one lesson, the les- 
son of respecting them. Governor Bailes invited them to a 
parliament to consult with them as men with men. At Quil- 
lin the solemn union was held in 1641 and it was largely at- 
tended by Spaniards and Araucanians. After many consul- 
tations they all agreed to live in peace and friendship in future. 



COLONIAL TIMES 



239 



The Araucanians should remain free from the labors of the 
encomiendas and the Spaniards were allowed to rebuild the 
destroyed cities. Will the reader note that the Araucanians 
were the only native people in all South America that were 
exempt from the forced labors of the Spaniards and that they 
preserved their independence through their love of liberty and 
their military gallantry. 

The dove of peace had hovered over the old battlefields 
already fourteen years, when some higher officers of the Span- 
ish army, relatives of the governor, through their avarice and 
rudeness occasioned another rise of the Araucanians in 1655. 
They destroyed various forts along the frontier and even the 
town of Chilian, which lies far north of the river Biobio. 
The coward governor fled to Santiago to escape the fury of 
the people of Concepcion who declared him deposed of the 
governorship. The Araucanians prosecuted the war, in which 
they were led by the mestizo Ale jo, but at last were willing to 
celebrate another parliament when Angel de Pereda, a new 
and devoted governor, arrived. — Even as late as 1766 the 
problem of conquering and civilizing the Araucanians had not 
been solved. In this year the Jesuit Villareal in Spain pre- 
sented to King Charles III. the plan of building towns in 
Araucania, thinking of civilizing her people in this way; as 
though the Araucanians had no towns, had no civil govern- 
ment, had no good virtues. The project was accepted and put 
into practice in Chile ; but some tribes opposed this and pro- 
voked a revolt which caused this second plan of the Jesuits to 
frustrate also. But the Araucanians were again willing to 
make peace and to hold a parliament. Their principal chiefs 
promised to send their sons to a school which was to be erected 
in Chilian especially for them. This new tactic, however, of 
getting the better over the Araucanian people, just as little 
produced any result. 

To the calamities of the Araucanian wars which demand- 
ed money, men, and time and wrought great havoc in the 



240 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



weak Chilean colony, to these calamities must be added those 
of the earthquakes. A long list of seismic disturbances could 
be enumerated ; but the most horrible earthquake occured 
May 13th, 1649, when Santiago, the capital, was reduced to a 
heap of ruins. Churches and houses buried a large part of the 
scanty population under their debris. 

All these causes contributed to the stagnation of colonial 
affairs. At the close of the 17th century Chile was still far 
back. The first governors had usually been distinguished 
military men and had displayed but slight ability in managing 
the affairs of government. Being engaged in the wars of 
Araucania they spent the most of their time in Concepcion 
and on the frontier. Later stupid and avaricious courtiers 
came, some of whom enriched themselves by negotiating un- 
lawfully and by selling favored positions to office seekers. 
The population was very scanty. Besides the capital there 
were in the whole country only five towns of some importance 
and these consisted of but a few houses and were separated by 
large uncultivated districts. In Valparaiso, now the largest 
port on South America's west coast, there were at that time 
only a few storerooms and a small number of plain houses. 
Even Santiago, the capital, had the appearance of an extensive, 
dreary village of some 7000 inhabitants. Temples, convents, 
and monasteries rose above the very plain houses, all of one 
story and thatched. Spaniards, mestizos, natives, and negroes 
constituted the population ; they dressed coarsely and lived 
meagerly. A sheep then was worth from fifteen to twenty 
cents, a cow from one dollar to one and a half. About 1750 
a university was opened in Santiago in which the ordinary 
studies and philosophy, theology, and the canonical and Roman 
laws were taught. Physicians were thought not to be neces- 
sary; surgery was considered a vile practice, a practice that 
might be proper for barbarians and bloodsuckers, not for civ- 
ilized colonists. — Two years after the opening of the univer- 
sity a mint was brought into existence. Money was coined 



COLONIAL TIMES 



241 



of gold and silver and it circulated more freely than it had 
done heretofore when it had been very scarce. The circula- 
tion of money, however, obtained its proper impetus when the 
Spanish merchant vessels were permitted to sail around cape 
Horn and to come up on the west coast whereby commerce 
grew more lively. 

In 1767 the Spanish government expelled the Jesuits from 
its possessions. The immense power which the Jesuit order 
exercised in Europe and America and the secret grafting in- 
fluence which they acquired in politics and state affairs made 
the rulers apprehensive of them. Consequently Charles III. 
ordered that the Jesuits be expelled from all his dominions, 
as they had been driven already from the Portuguese coun- 
tries and soon after were from France and other countries. 
In Chile the Jesuits had acquired immense wealth through do- 
nations and inheritance on the part of devoted colonists. They 
possessed more than thirty large landed properties and ranch- 
es ; their houses, mills, vineyards, herds, and slaves were 
innumerable. The administrator of the Chilean colony did 
not favor the movement of expelling the Jesuits and only re- 
luctantly executed the order for the expulsion ; Bishop Alday 
assisted in the work. All the preparations having been made 
in deepest silence, in one and the same night all the houses of 
the Jesuits in Chile were surrounded, their occupants seized, 
and soon after sent to Italy. There were about 400 thus ex- 
pelled ; one or the other only had succeeded to make his escape. 
Among the exiled were historians and theologians. The prop- 
erties of the Jesuits were sold by the attorney general ; of the 
proceeds each exiled received the daily pension of 25 cents ; 
the rest was appropriated to public institutions of benevolence 
and to instruction. 

The most distinguished of the governors of Chile during 
the colonial period was Don Ambrose O'Higgins. Though 
he was of poor Irish descent he had risen by degrees until he 
had become intendente of Concepcion, chief magistrate of the 

16 



242 



HISTORY OF SOUTH' AMERICA 



frontier, and the man who enjoyed the confidence of old Gov- 
nor Benavides. About the year 1790 O'Higgins became gov- 
ernor. As such he visited the entire country from Copiapo 
in the north to the extreme south, correcting abuses in admin- 
istration with firmness and encouraging the founding of more 
towns. He persuaded the indomitable Araucanians to attend 
a parliament which was solemnly held at Negrete, and he also 
suppressed the encomiendas on which the natives of the north 
and the center were held in servitude. The reader will re- 
member that in Araucania no encomiendas could be estab- 
lished. — The river Mapocho, a mountain stream that flows 
through Santiago, had done much harm to the city when in- 
cessant rains had fallen in the mountains and the waters had 
overflowed its banks. O'Higgins built the dikes which have 
kept the rushing waters in their channel ever since. He also 
built the wagon road between Santiago and Valparaiso, a dis- 
tance of eighty miles, through a mountainous country, and 
quite far advanced the palatial residence of the governor. 
Ambrose O'Higgins was nominated viceroy of Peru and dec- 
orated with various orders. His son Bernhard became the 
revolutionary hero of Chile and her first president. 

COLONIAL LAWS AND LIFE. 

The author thinks it proper to record the regulations and 
peculiarities of South American colonial life in this connec- 
tion. As he lived in Chile he was best able to acquaint him- 
self with the colonial affairs of that country. But as all the 
colonies received about the same regulations and laws from 
the Spanish Court and were governed by the same methods, 
Chile's colonial life was similar or equal to that of the other 
colonies. We, therefore, shall not repeat the regulations and 
laws of colonies. 

Spain exercised a despotism over her colonies. The gov- 
ernment mainly thought of exploiting them and of keeping 
the colonists submissive to royal dominion and to the Catholic 



COLONIAL TIMES 



243 



faith. To exercise the desired control the government and 
church representatives entered into all the relations of society 
and of families, even into the consciences of men and women. 
The "Laws of Indias" regulated the minutest acts of life des- 
ignating even the hour when the colonists should go to bed 
and the clothing they should wear. No liberty was allowed 
them for anything. "Obey and be quiet is the duty of a good 
vassal," was the maxim of a viceroy. That despotic ruling 
took all energy from the Americans and retarded the material, 
intellectual, and moral progress of the colonies. 

The king and the "Council of Indias" governed the colo- 
nists and the latter sacrificed all to their king, who was rever- 
enced almost as divine. He exercised all the powers, being 
absolute ruler, exclusive legislator, and supreme judge. In 
all matters pertaining to the colonies he obtained his informa- 
tion from the Council of Indias to whom the colonists had to 
apply. The king also exercised an ecclesiastic patronage. He 
gave notice to the pope concerning the priests who should be 
appointed bishops, and no disposition of the Roman pontiff 
could be executed without permission from the king and his 
council. 

In Chile the royal power was exercised by a governor 
who was president of the audiencia and captain-general of 
the army. He was appointed by the king, as all the high offi- 
cers were, and ordinarily served a term of eight years, receiv- 
ing an annual salary of 8000 pesos. The encomenderos man- 
aged the districts or encomiendas into which the country was 
divided. At the close of the 18th century intendentes and 
minor officers were appointed instead of the encomenderos. 
The Chilean colony had two intendencias : the one of Santia- 
go, the other of Concepcion, separated by the river Maule. — 
The royal audiencia was the highest tribunal of justice in a 
colony. The alcaldes of the municipalities were inferior 
judges and there were still many other tribunals so that the 
administration of justice was very complicate. At the close 



244 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of the 18th century tribunals of mining and commerce were 
created in Chile whose duty it was to encourage and foster 
this industry and commerce. — The penal laws authorized 
torture for the purpose of forcing confession from the ac- 
cused and it was generally applied very severely. On the 
principal plaza of Santiago was a post on which persons who 
had been sentenced to be punished were publicly whipped 
under screams and lamentations. — The law recognized the 
slavery of negroes, and primogeniture according to which the 
property of the father passed in its entirety to the eldest son. 
While he became the wealthy landowner or property holder, 
his brothers and sisters were usually thrown into misery. — 
Another disequality must be recorded. Between persons born 
in Spain and persons born in a colony a decided difference 
was observed ; the first were called peninsulars and the latter, 
Creoles. The advantages were all in favor of the former; for 
they were appointed to the higher offices, and even commerce 
was carried on so as to enrich them. Among the many who 
governed the state and the church during the 250 years of 
Chile's colonial life, there were but two governors and two 
bishops who were Creoles, i. e. who were born in the colony. 
This unjust preferment provoked bitter complaints among the 
Creoles and a deep rivalry arose therefrom between the latter 
and the proud peninsulars, a rivalry which was destined to 
become a forerunner to the revolution of independence. 

In the towns were boards, called cabildos, which had the 
policing and the progress of the locality in charge. These 
municipal boards were composed of regents who bought their 
offices at public auction and usually kept them for life. They 
elected two of their number as alcaldes, corresponding to our 
justices of the peace, whose duty it was to administer justice 
and to see to public order. While the higher positions were 
in the hands of the peninsulars, the town boards were general- 
ly composed of Creoles who thus acquired some ability, later 
to agitate and work for independence. — Many abuses and 



COLONIAL TIMES 



245 



frauds were committed by the officials. The king's endeavor 
it was to make the wrong doings of his functionaries impos- 
sible, depriving them of all occasions. But in spite of this 
even governors and judges committed all kinds of abuses and 
with money quieted all complaints. And the king was easily 
deceived, owing to the distance between Spain and her col- 
onies. 

Since the beginning of the conquest clericals of various 
religious orders had come to Chile, first the Franciscans and 
Dominicans, then the Mercenarians, and lastly the Jesuits and 
Augustinians. They founded convents which through devoted 
donors and testators became wealthy readily. The number 
of religionists, which now is scarce and without influence, at 
that time was very large and influential. The Franciscan or- 
der was as strong as that of the 'Jesuits; each had 400 indi- 
viduals. The friars enjoyed such a predominence and such 
considerations that the principal families felt honored when 
they had one of their relatives amongst them. In pace with 
the convents the nunneries increased in number. The tran- 
quillity of the ones and the others was very often disturbed by 
scandalous chapters, occasioned by the elections of directors 
of those institutions. The event agitated a whole city at times, 
influencing families in favor of the one or the other candi- 
date. The friars attended to preaching and served in the 
Spanish and Indian missions. In spite of the personal sacri- 
fices and the money expended the missionaries to the Arau- 
canians did not accomplish the results that had been expected ; 
for those people could not understand the catholic doctrines 
and dogmas. Though they were baptized by the thousands, 
they stayed as barbarous as before. The mistake was that 
the Araucanians were not led to Him who taketh away the 
sins of the world ; they experienced no change of heart and, 
therefore, did not improve their way of living. — The con- 
vents opened the first schools in Chile and had the monopoly 
of teaching the Chilean youth for more than two centuries, 



246 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



but only a small percent of the boys attended the convents. 
The instruction was confined to reading, writing, and count- 
ing. Latin and some sciences were taught only for the pur- 
pose of educating new religionists, i. e. members for the spe- 
cific orders. Schools for girls were almost unknown. The 
state supported the university of the capital and two other in- 
stitutions and the king authorized the opening of an academy 
in Santiago in which arithmetic, geometry, and drawing were 
taught. The scarcity and high prices of books contributed 
to the prevailing ignorance. There was no press in Chile 
during the colonial times, and from Spain hardly any other 
books came than the lives of saints and some such devotional 
reading. These were the only books the inflexible ecclesias- 
tical Tribunal of Inquisition of Peru would allow to be read. 
The Inquisition judges proceeded secretly and applied tortures 
to wrest confessions from the accused. They believed in 
compacts with the devil and persecuted supposed witches and 
conjurors without pity and also such as were denounced for 
heretical readings or expressions. The unfortunates who fell 
into the hands of the Inquisition judges were generally con- 
demned to the loss of their properties or to a long and hard 
imprisonment ; at times they were burned alive in the autos 
de fe. There was no Inquisition Tribunal in Chile, but emis- 
saries of the Peruvian office came to Chile and sent accused 
Chilean colonists to Lima. Thus the Peruvian office drew its 
victims from all the Spanish colonies, suppressed individual 
thought and enlightenment, spread terror over the hearts and 
minds of the people, and contributed to the stagnation of the 
colonial times. 

Chile was the poorest of the Spanish American colonies. 
it had neither the rich mines of Peru and Mexico nor the 
valuable products of the tropics. The Chilean people had to 
work incessantly on the fields and in commercial pursuits to 
make a living ; work and poverty kept them from the corrup- 
tion of the other colonists. Though the contributions were 



COLONIAL TIMES 



247 



numerous, yet public taxes amounted to but 500,000 pesos 
annually. This amount did not suffice for the expenses of 
the administration and pay of the standing army ; so the royal 
treasuries of Potosi and of Lima had to assist the government 
of Chile with an annual subvention. Some values came from 
mines in the north, but the principal sources of income were 
agriculture and "the raising of cattle. The cattle and cereals 
of Spain became thoroughly acclimatized in Chile, as also did 
fruit trees and domestic fowl. Until the close of the 17th 
century tallow, fat, leather, and dried beef were Chile's prin- 
cipal export articles; but since that time the raising of wheat 
increased rapidly. That Spain might sell her wines and oils 
without competition, the production of these products was 
prohibited in the colonies. Although the raising of the olive 
and the vine was at last permitted in Peru and Chile, it was 
under the condition of not exporting these products. The 
agricultural pursuits were hampered by such restrictions, and 
also by the fact that large tracts of land were kept undivided. 
This latter circumstance was due on the one hand to the law 
of primogeniture, in virtue of which large estates came into 
the possession of one man, the oldest son of the family, and 
on the other hand it was due to the extensive domains of the 
religious orders. Thus many people were left without lands 
and homes, without the means to acquire a livelihood, and 
were doomed to poverty. May not the peon class have orig- 
inated from such conditions ? 

The same system of ruinous monopoly controlled the 
commerce. The Americans had to buy dear and to sell 
cheap. Not only was every foreigner prohibited to trade in 
Spanish South America, but even the merchants in Spain 
could do it only through one port ; first Sevilla was designated 
for that purpose, afterwards Cadiz received the privilege. A 
body of men who constituted the commercial house in those 
ports of monopoly, intervened in everything respecting the 
trade with America, regulating the quantity and the quality 



248 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of the merchandises and the manner how, as well as the time 
when they should be dispatched. From time to time a number 
of small vessels sailed, being ordered, however, to touch three 
or four ports of the Caribbean sea only. To these ports the 
colonial merchants went to barter their goods, selling and buy- 
ing in a great fair at prices which the merchants of Cadiz im- 
posed upon them. The Chilean merchants were obliged to 
make their sales and purchases in the distant fair of Porto- 
bello, a New Granadian port. It takes the steamer now sev- 
enteen days to make the trip from Valparaiso to Panama; 
and then those Chilenos had to cross the isthmus. The ves- 
sels returned to Spain loaded with precious metals and other 
products of America. On the trip they were at times plun- 
dered by English and Dutch privateers, who were a menace 
to the trade for a long time. The fear of these pirates sus- 
pended the departure of the vessels several times and each 
time they stayed away a few years. In those years the Amer- 
icans could neither sell their products nor purchase Spanish 
goods. Then smuggling was indulged in and carriecf on in 
great style and unscrupulously. Only at the beginning of the 
18th century did the Bourbon kings begin to tolerate com- 
merce around cape Horn. Ancf in 1778 Charles III. granted 
still more liberal concessions by giving Valparaiso and Con- 
cepcion the permission to carry on commerce directly with 
Spain. The transandine commerce with Buenos Aires also 
gained in importance. However, the main marketing country 
of Chile always was Peru. The Chilenos took there dried beef, 
tallow, grease, leather, copper, and wheat and brought from 
Peru sugar and salt and from Quito cloth and other goods. 

Chile's population became a mixed race. The wars in 
the south, the encomiendas and small-pox in the north deci- 
mated the natives of the country, while the population of .the 
Spanish type increased by mixing with the native and gen- 
erating with it one single race. Nevertheless, the increase of 
the population progressed very slowly, it being Spain's en- 



COLONIAL TIMES 



249 



deavor to keep her colonies separate one from the other and 
from the rest of the world, impeding immigration. Nobody 
could migrate into a colony or leave a colony without permis- 
sion from the authorities. The few foreigners who succeeded 
to immigrate, had to purchase the permission from the court; 
the king at last ordered to demand 410 pesos for the permis- 
sion. In every case the applicant had to be an Apostolic 
Roman Catholic; a non-Catholic or a Protestant could not 
enter the colonies under any consideration. About the mid- 
dle of the 18th century the king ordered the expulsion of those 
who might be in Chile without permission, when it was found 
that there were then not more than fifteen foreigners in the 
country; whether there were any without permission, the his- 
torian does not record. Just before the revolution of independ- 
ence, about a century ago, the Chilean colony had half a mil- 
lion of inhabitants, of whom the most were natives and mes- 
tizos ; Santiago then counted ,30,000 to 40,000 and Valparaiso 
5,000 to 6,000 persons. 

Social distinctions existed in the colonial population by 
law and by custom. The peninsular Spaniards, designated by 
the nickname of Chapetones, constituted the upper class ; 
they were mainly public officers and merchants. The Creoles 
were the second class ; they were descendants of the Span- 
iards, but born in the colony; they were wealthy landowners 
and rich proprietors. After these two classes, which were 
privileged and rivaled with one another, the mestizos followed 
who descended from Spanish and native unions, and lastly the 
mulattos who were a mixture of Spanish and negro blood and 
were considered infamous by law. Prejudice and racial pride 
kept the classes separate; similar distinctions exist still today 
in the countries of the southern continent. The principal 
Chilean families descended from obscure adventurers of the 
time of conquest or from merchants and poor employes. — 
There were also negro slaves, but they were not considered 
or treated like human beings ; they were bought and sold as 



250 'HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



horses and cattle. A young and robust negro was worth from 
400 to 600 pesos ; an old and feeble female slave was sold for 
100 pesos. For these unfortunates family life did not exist, 
nor any Christian regard. They had been carried away from 
the African coast by infamous tradesmen and sold in Ameri- 
ca. On account of Chile's pleasant climate and light labors on 
the fields the negroes were not so numerous there as in trop- 
ical countries and the lot of the few was easier. The natives 
of the center and the north who did not intermingle with the 
rest of the population, lived in separate villages and were 
governed by their chiefs, retaining their customs and usages, 
provided that they did not act contrary to the Catholic faith 
and ways. The native men were obliged to pay a polltax, of 
whose income the salaries of the chiefs, of the teaching priests, 
and of the protectors were paid. The latter were appointed 
to defend them against fraud and violence. 

Indolence and monotony were the essence of colonial life. 
The afternoon naps and the religious exercises of the morn- 
ing and the evening required a large part of the day. In the 
evening at nine o'clock in the winter and at ten in the summer 
the bell of retirement terminated the visits in the drawing 
rooms ; the doors were closed and the streets deserted ; these 
then were dark and dreadful. Traveling was difficult and 
rare. Outside news did not arrive until very, very late, there 
being no mail service. As Chile of that time had no large 
business houses, no banks, no daily papers, no politics, the 
subjects of conversation did not go beyond the family circles; 
but still there was enough for the gossipers to chat, for the 
families were large. As it was difficult to export products 
the necessaries of life were abundant and cheap. A bushel 
of wheat was sold for about twenty cents and a cow for two 
dollars. A hired girl received one dollar for her monthly serv- 
ice. On the contrary the articles of European importation 
were scarce and expensive. It is plain that those colonists 
did not even know many of the articles which the comfort of 



COLONIAL TIMES 



251 



modern life requires. However, wealthy families had some 
jewels, silver table services, valuable robes made of satin, vel- 
vet or silk and bought at gold prices. Such articles and also 
certain pieces of furniture were transmitted from generation 
to generation by testament. Tea and coffee as also Spanish 
wines and other liquors were taken, as we take medicine ; so 
scarce they were. The gentlemen drank chocolate and all 
took mate made of herbs from Paraguay. Festivals and pub- 
lic diversions occurred then much more frequently than now in 
Chile. The crowning of a new king, the arrival of a governor 
or of a bishop, the birth of a royal baby etc. were accasions for 
popular festivals which used to last «many days. Religious 
processions in which the church exhibited her glory, prayers 
said in public squares in the presence of thousands, nine days 
of public worship to the honor of some saint etc., succeeded 
one another without interruption. The most gaudy of the 
neighborhood came to show off in these processions. — Ig- 
norance and exaggerations of devout souls filled the imagina- 
tions with absurd beliefs. The people told one another of 
wonderful events, of spirits in torment, of appearances of the 
devil, of persons possessed by him, of fairies, witches, and 
ghosts. Such fabulous stories, at times, alarmed an entire 
neighborhood. — Cock-fights were a common diversion and 
almost as cruel as the bull-fights. Theatres did not exist in 
colonial Chile. 



252 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



COLONIAL TIMES OF NEW GRANADA. 
I 55° t° 1S10. 

With the establishment of the audiencia April 7th, 1550, 
the colonial period of New Granada had its beginning. When, 
at this time, rich silver mines were discovered in the valley 
of Cambis, the audiencia commissioned Captain S. Quintero 
to found a town there, which was called San Sebastian. The 
Muzos and other native tribes kept their sections of the coun- 
try in constant alarm wherefore the audiencia resolved to take 
steps towards their pacification. The undertaking was put in 
charge of Peter Ursua who started out on the expedition and 
thought to go simultaneously in search of el dorado. As 
soon as Ursua entered the country of the Muzos daily fights 
took place. Finally emissaries of the caciques came to offer 
peace which Ursua accepted, extending at the same time 
the invitation to the principal caciques to meet for a consulta- 
tion. They, trusting in the commander's good will, presented 
themselves in the Spanish camp. While they were there they 
were villainously and cruelly assassinated. Then the natives 
became infuriated and the war implacable. Towns had to be 
forsaken and were reduced to ashes. Ursua had to abandon 
that country, burdened with the infamy of his felony. His 
crime he^ paid a few years later on the bank of the Amazon 
where he was assassinated. 

The Spanish Court decided to appoint Montanyo as visi- 
tor and manager to the New Granadian colony. Montanyo 
was seemingly polluted by every sort of foulness and, while 
governing the colony, rolled up a record of horror. He dis- 
charged some members of the audiencia and took the civil 
government in his own hands. His servants robbed the In- 
dians on the highways. Justice was sold to the highest bidder, 
but not dealt out to him who deserved it. His flatterers were 
rewarded with the goods which they took from those who 



COLONIAL TIMES 



253 



opposed their depredations. Montanyo obliged the secretary 
of the audiencia to authorize various false writings and per- 
secuted the archbishop for interceding in behalf of the victims 
of his tyranny. And it happened, indeed, that Montanyo had 
Judge P. Salcedo beheaded because he had not supported his 
robberies. To draw the attention away from the machina- 
tions of his officers, he resolved to wage war against the 
Pijaos tribe which did not cease to molest the towns that 
were nearest their borders. Captain Salinas faithfully dis- 
charged his duties, for he conquered that valiant tribe so com- 
pletely as not to attempt another formal battle. 

The arrival of J. Maldonado as attorney-general of the 
audiencia afforded a moment of hope to the oppressed. Mon- 
tanyo undertook a campaign, being desirous of gaining a vic- 
tory which might, in a measure at least, palliate his wrong 
doings, but he found no chance to fight. At his return to 
Bogata he learned with horror that some of his enemies had 
left for the coast for the purpose of going to Spain to lay their 
complaints before the Court; this was done in 1557. Judges 
were appointed who suspended Montanyo from office and put 
him in prison. Promptly he was arraigned, found guilty, and 
cent to Spain bound with a piece of the horrible chain which 
he had used to imprison his victims. In Valladolid, Spain, 
his trial was resumed and Montanyo was condemned to death. 

The Muzos had opened hostilities again and with greater 
vigor than before. Captain Lanchero asked for the order to 
fight or, as they called it, to pacify them, and he obtained it. 
After some obstinate fighting Lanchero had the good fortune 
to defeat them so completely that the rest of the tribe aban- 
doned the territory and made their abodes with the Carares. 
Lanchero founded the city of Trinidad in their territory. 
Thereafter A. Toledo undertook a campaign against the Col- 
imas who were likewise defeated and brought to terms ; in 
their territory the town of Palma was founded. 

To aid the advancement of affairs in the New Granadian 



254 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



colony, the Spanish Court thought it expedient to appoint a 
supreme authority endowed with the faculties of a governor 
and of a captain-general; Andrew Verier o received the ap- 
pointment. He arrived at Santa Fe de Bogata in 1564 and 
initiated an administrative term of ten years which is known 
in history as the golden period of the Granadian colony. He 
paid especial attention to the Indians, to whom he had lands 
assigned. He forbade to burden them with forced labor and 
contributions, inforcing thus "the new laws" of Charles I., 
and he appointed a member of the audiencia as the protector 
of the natives. Venero had some four hundred churches and 
jails built in the towns, ordered to open parochial schools, and 
regulated the mission work. He ordered the exploitation of 
the Santa Ana silver mines and the Muzo emerald mines, and 
had the gold dust which so far had been used as a means of 
exchange, reduced to ingols and then coined by the govern- 
ment. He also attended to the improvement of roads, to the 
construction of bridges, lent his aid to the traffic between 
Bogata and Honda and to the navigation of the river Magda- 
lena. In the cloister of Father Anton Miranda philosophical 
and theological studies were commenced at this time, bringing 
the idea of a pontifical university into existence. Yenero 
watched with special care over the administration of justice 
and brought those to terms who thought their titles of nobility 
made them immune ; for he punished the culprits without re- 
gard to titles or persons. In 1566 the terrible plague of small- 
pox ravaged, decimating the population. Governor Yenero 
procured help for the sick and the needy and punished the 
bandits who availed themselves of the public calamity to plun- 
der and to commit crimes. Full of merits and applauded by 
a grateful people President Venero returned to Spain towards 
the close of the year 1578. — During this administration Mar- 
shal Quesada also undertook an expedition in search of el 
dorado. He expended more than 250,000 pesos in the enter- 



COLONIAL TIMES 



255 



prise and experienced the same disastrous result as all the for- 
mer adventurers had experienced in the same search. 

As the towns of the Pacific were plundered by English 
and Dutch pirates, so were also those of the Caribbean coast; 
and it seems the work of pillaging and devastation was no- 
where carried on more disastrously than here. At the close 
of the year 1585 the English pirate, Francis Drake, attacked 
the Granadian port Riohacha, took it, and secured a rich haul 
of pearls. Then he sacked Santa Marta and attacked Carta- 
gena, which he took in spite of heroic resistance. A month 
and a half he stayed in the latter city and collected over 400,- 
000 pesos, of which sum 107,000 pesos were given to keep him 
from sacking the city. Nevertheless, at the moment of de- 
parture he wanted to set the Franciscan convent and the sub- 
urb on fire; but the prelate saved them by paying another 
additional sum of money. From Cartagena he went to the 
city of Panama where he was repulsed ; a disease brought his 
mad career to a close on the isthmus. Somewhat later Chris- 
topher Cordello attacked Santa Marta and robbed the valua- 
bles which the people had been able to save from Drake's 
rapacity. — About the year 1670 Morgan appeared with a 
large force before Portobello, which port he took and sacked 
in spite of the heroic resistance of her sons. That Morgan 
might be able to give his operations a larger scope, he called 
all his companions together on the island of Tortuga for a 
general consultation. To . secure provisions for their opera- 
tions, they ransacked Riohacha and Maracaibo, deceiving the 
Granadian admiral. Then they attacked the fortified island 
of Santa Catalina with 32 ships and 2000 men ; the island was 
cowardly surrendered by the commander. Morgan commis- 
sioned Brodely to take Chagres whose garrison resisted with 
unheard of heroism; of the 314 valiant men who defended 
the towers only 30 remained, and these were wounded. All 
the pirates having united there, they began the march across 
the isthmus to the city of Panama. Though the city was vig- 



256 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



orously defended, after several assaults it was taken and then 
thoroughly plundered. Before returning to their ships they 
resolved to burn the city and Panama sank into ashes. 600 
principal citizens were lead away as prisoners and threatened 
to be sold into slavery, unless they would pay an increased 
ransom. Consenting to this, they surrendered more large 
sums. The plunder was divided in Cruces where Morgan 
adjudged almost all to himself. Arriving at Chagres he took 
the best vessels and fled in them, depriving thus his comrades 
of the spoils. Such scandals disquieted the European nations ; 
and England, having been petitioned so often, at last- gave 
orders to close her ports in the West Indian islands to the 
sea robbers and to persecute them. 

Soon after this piracy a term of administration was initi- 
ated which became for the colonists not less disastrous than 
the former; it was the term of Ibanyez and Larrea. The pi- 
rates had laid the coasts waste, the new functionaries became 
pirates of the interior. "When they exercised their power 
from 1674 to '78 they committed all kinds of excesses and 
gave themselves up to scheming. They sought such persons 
as were involved in law-suits which were apt to fail so as to 
gain financial advantage thereby. They did not appoint men 
to office, but sold offices to the highest bidders. To them 
everything had a price and was salable. In 1678 the Court 
appointed another man to the presidency. Accusations were 
brought against his predecessors ; they were tried and found 
guilty. Ibanyez died while the sentence was upon him, while 
Larrea succeeded to escape, evading thus the punishment ; 
however, he was not able to rid himself of his infamy. 

And now a time of quarrels between the civil and church 
authorities follows, which were accompanied by odious scan- 
dals. The quarrels were occasioned by Franciscan friars who 
wanted the nuns of Santa Clara to be dependent on them, 
while the nuns wished to be under the supervision of the bish- 
op who defended them and wished to terminate the unpleasant 



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257 



disturbance. But the civil authority sustained the friars in 
their demand. For years these scandalous disputes went on. 
Every time when a judicial decree arrived from the audiencia 
favoring the friars, the bishop appealed to the Spanish Court, 
the governor then declared the episcopal seat vacant, and the 
bishop fulminated excommunication against the civil author- 
ities. The bishop of Santa Marta, mixing in a dispute of an- 
other jurisdiction, accursed the prelate, and the latter returned 
the curse to the Santa Marta bishop and extended it also to 
the friars, who in their turn flung it over to the nuns. Yes, 
the friars even laid formal siege to the nunnery, broke the 
doors open, damaged the cloister, and maltreated the nuns, 
who defended themselves with chairs. The friars of all the 
other orders also armed themselves to assist the Franciscans 
and to fight the vicar-general; for this man had locked the 
churches in obedience to the bishop's order. The disputes 
and fights were finally terminated by a decree of the king and 
a bull of the pope, in which they gave justice to the nuns by 
freeing them from the dependency of the Franciscans. The 
scandal had lasted three years and had revealed the demorali- 
zation in which those orders lived. These disturbances and 
the previously related political corruptions show the spirit of 
the age and the forces that were at work in the South Ameri- 
can colonial life. 

At the close of the 17th century corsairs and pirates re- 
turned to the Granadian coast, while the French were at war 
with the Spaniards. Baron de Pointis commanded French 
vessels in the West Indian waters and had the ill-will to accept 
the pirate Ducasse as his auxiliary. They appeared before 
Cartagena with 22 vessels in April, 1697. While the city was 
attacked the Castilian commander Sancho Jimenez covered 
himself with glory when he defended the castle of Bocachica. 
With 73 men the Castilian resisted the assault of 5000 ; before 
surrendering he broke his sword. While lowering the draw- 
bridge, he showed the rest of his steel to Pointis, introduced 

17 



258 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



his young wife to him, and pointed out to him the cemetery 
where the dead that had fallen, were resting; the hospital 
where the men that were wounded, were suffering; and the 
towers where the cowards that had advised to surrender, were 
lying in chains. Commander Pointis drew his own sword out 
of its sheath and giving it to Jimenez said : "A gentleman like 
you must not be unarmed. Carry my sword and honor it as 
you have honored yours." Don Sancho Jimenez was appoint- 
ed governor of the city and saved it from being plundered by 
the pirates, thanks to the protection of high-minded Pointis, 
the victor who knew how to honor the conquered. After an 
occupation of five weeks the French left, carrying with them 
valuables to the amount of eight million dollars. Among the 
valuables taken by Pointis was the silver sepulchre which be- 
longed to the cathedral of Cartagena. Years later it was re- 
turned to the city by Louis XIV., king of the French, accom- 
panied by a valuable silver palm. About a century still later, 
in 1815, when the war of revolution was waged, both jewels, 
the sepulchre and the palm, were melted and coined during the 
memorable siege of the heroic city, and they served to pur- 
chase rations for the soldiers of independence. They could 
not have served a better purpose. 

In the year 1718 New Granada was raised to a viceroy- 
ship. This new step was highly important in as much as the 
first official should be endowed with more power and author- 
ity than had been the case heretofore. However, the country 
was not advanced thereby. Indeed, from what happened in 
the first forty years of the 18th century one can not record 
one single act which might have benefited the colony. Instead 
of solving the great problems of administration the authorities 
spent their time in sterile controversies. We shall, therefore, 
not tarry, but proceed to the year 1740, when Sebastian de 
Eslaba became viceroy. He stayed in Cartagena the eight 
years of his administration, not residing in Bogata, the capi- 
tal. During this time new troubles came on. The British 



COLONIAL TIMES 



259 



government had the previous year declared Spain war and 
confided her fleet in American waters to Admiral Vernon, 
who attacked Granadian ports. So sure was Vernon of com- 
plete triumph that he had medals prepared on which Don 
Bias de Leso, the governor of Cartagena, was represented as 
kneeling and surrendering his sword and the city's keys to 
Vernon. The English squadron was composed of eight ships 
with three bridges each, 28 ships of the line, 12 frigates, a 
few fire ships, and 130 transport vessels. The squadron car- 
ried 9000 men of disembarkation, 2000 negroes from Jamaica, 
one North American regiment, and 15,000 marines. Viceroy 
Eslaba and Governor Leso had for the defense 1,100 veteran 
soldiers, 300 militiamen, 600 Indian workmen, two companies 
of freed negroes and mulattos, and 6 war vessels manned by 
400 soldiers and 600 marines. The British attacked the for- 
tifications of Cartagena March 15th. Having gained some 
advantage, due to the fact that the Granadians could not at- 
tend to all the threatened points on account of the scanty de- 
fense, they planned a formal attack of the castle San Lazarus. 
When the British, 4000 men strong, marched against it, the 
Spanish lieutenant, Navarrete, met them with bayonets, re- 
pulsed them, and the assaulters left 800 dead and 200 wounded 
men behind. By the 28th the defenders of the city had re- 
captured all the points which the English had occupied, with 
the exception of Manzanillo. Vernon, deceived in his illu- 
sions about an easy and quick triumph and seeing that infirmi- 
ties wrought havoc among his troops, resolved to cannonade 
the city; no noteworthy harm was done. After the destruc- 
tion of the fortifications which he had occupied, Vernon left 
the Granadian waters and sailed for Jamaica. He left behind 
him 9000 dead men, killed by diseases and the valor of the 
enemy, a large part of military supplies which he was obliged 
to abandon, and six vessels which he burned, as they were 
useless for the return trip. Thus records Sr. Otero, the his- 
torian. 



260 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



In the year 1761 Don P. M. Zerda entered upon the duties 
of the viceroyship. He was a man of ability; his merits had 
secured him a high position in Spain. In New Granada he 
directed his first attention to the regulation of public taxes 
which had brought but meagre income to the public treasury 
on account of bad management. At different occasions he 
petitioned the Court to grant the Granadian ports special priv- 
ileges, as that would be a most efficient means to avoid con- 
traband. Zerda also established places where government 
monopoly goods were to be sold ; such as, whiskey and tobacco. 
He had workmen come from Spain, who were able to open 
new industries, affording thus the people new opportunities 
to work and at the same time securing more income for the 
public treasury. So, for instance, he established the saltpetre 
factory in Tunja and the powder factory in Santa Fe to which 
he annexed a factory of pottery. In the line of public im- 
provements he had bridges built across rivers and began the 
work to close up the entrance to the bay of Cartagena, called 
Boca Grande ; this was a necessary step towards the comple- 
tion of the defense of the city. 

During Sr. Zerda's administration the royal order to ex- 
pel the Jesuits reached the colony. We shall relate here what 
Colombian history keeps on record in regard to their expul- 
sion. In August, 1767, the Jesuits were taken from the schools 
which they had in the country and were, under protection, 
sent to the nearest ports. There they should take different 
routes in search of places of refuge which many countries de- 
nied them. Their properties which they had delivered up in 
the best order and under inventory, were managed by a com- 
mission and the income from the same was assigned to the 
public treasury. 171 years the order had existed in the col- 
ony. As their mission work in which they chiefly taught the 
catechism, always had achieved the best results, public in- 
struction suffered when their thirteen schools were closed. 
With skill and perseverance the Jesuits had given instruction 



COLONIAL TIMES 



261 



to a large number of young men. Their philological studies 
which they had pursued, classifying the Indian dialects and 
grouping them around the mother languages, were completely 
lost. 103 farms which they had cultivated, came in the pos- 
session of the government. Those nearest the centers of pop- 
ulation were later sold to individuals, while the others were 
neglected and finally wholly abandoned. A growth of young 
trees sprung up on lands which labor had made productive, 
and the natives who had been brought under the sway of civ- 
ilization, again returned to a nomadic life. The decree of ex- 
pulsion, therefore, wrought harm in the New Granadian col- 
ony. The Jesuits were remembered by the good they had 
done in the mission work and by the press they had had in 
use since 1734. 

In the year 1780 Sr. F lores became viceroy, but was 
placed under the tutelage of a visitor who assisted in the ad- 
ministration in the capacity of a regent. The latter intro- 
duced efficient regulations to improve the possessions of the 
crown so as to increase the government income. He also 
raised the prices of the articles which the government had 
monopolized, introduced new duties, and extended those du- 
ties that were already in use, to the smaller industries which 
had hitherto been free. Dividing the inhabitants into two 
classes, he had a poll-tax of one peso collected from one class 
and one of two pesos from the other class. These contribu- 
tions were partly sent to Spain for war expenses. Thus the 
. discontentment increased and spread that had been caused by 
the introduction of certain measures favorable to the native 
population. The public ill-will, however, was not aroused 
until the guards came into existence whose duty it was to 
watch the monopolized articles and to collect the new duties. 
A writer says : "The guards trampled the rights of the people 
under foot, vexed them, and ruined property wherever they 
wanted." The monopolized articles ; such as, salt, whiskey, 
tobacco, packs of cards, were sold at high prices ; bridge-toll 



262 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



was excessively high ; permits for going and coming on the 
roads, had to be purchased. In short, the people were vexed 
in a thousand ways. When their patience was exhausted 
they thought of revenge. Those of Simocota went out to 
meet the guards ; they killed one and mortally wounded an- 
other. The people of other places followed the example and 
all protested against the new duties and especially against the 
manner of collecting them. These were the first tumultuous 
movements of an agitation that should soon shake the very 
foundation of the viceroyship. The audiencia proved to be 
unable to suppress it. In the month of March, 1781, market 
was held in Socorro and many people gathered. When the 
crowds indulged in conversations on the current topic, a wom- 
an, Manuela Bertran by name, tore the edict off which pub- 
lished the collection of duties, pulled the royal arms from the 
monopoly building, and, trampling them under foot, cried for 
war. All the people were drawn into the tumult. The au- 
thorities of the place made an endeavor to control the agita- 
tion, but were intimidated by the populace. Then they tried 
to escape and would have been badly treated had not a priest 
come to their assistance. He rushed with the sacrament out 
of the church and under this protection brought them into 
safety. The flame of insurrection was ablaze. All the north- 
ern districts, without exception, revolted and appointed lead- 
ers ; Francisco Berbero became the soul of the revolution. 
He sent a representation to the regent-visitor and the audien- 
cia at Bogata, to inform them of what had happened and to 
point out the greater evils that would follow, if by opportune 
concessions they would not satisfy the demands of the people. 
The officials, however, did not abandon their former system 
and demanded that the revolters return to obedience. The 
revolting spirit continued to permeate the entire north and ex- 
tended even to some provinces of Venezuela. So the revolu- 
tionary leaders resolved to march to Bogata, the capital. The 
regent knowing well the profound hatred that was entertained 



COLONIAL TIMES 



263 



against him, sent a force of 100 men under Barrera to keep 
• them back or to fight them, accompanied by Judge Osorio 
\ who should treat with the rebels. As soon as the revolters 
\ who were 500 strong, met the regent's force they got ready 
to fight. But Barrera's men, seeing that the files of their op- 
ponents momentarily increased in numbers, left him. The 
commander and the judge were made prisoners ; Judge Osorio, 
lowever, was released and died soon after. When the offi- 
cials received the news of this event, they were panic-stricken, 
especially the regent whom the revolters had threatened to 
kill. In the quiet of the night the audiencia advised him to 
retire at once to Honda and resolved that a commission be 
authorized to negotiate with the rebels and go out to meet 
them. The number of these constantly increased on their 
march to the capital and they took, as they proceeded, tobacco 
and whiskey from the government monopoly buildings, selling 
them to provide rations for their troops or destroying them. 
When they met the commissioners of the audiencia, Berbero 
presented in writing what they demanded in the name of the 
people. In the negotiations that followed the commissioners 
made new representations which, though they were not ac- 
cepted, caused the rumor to spread among the revolters that 
the duties should continue to exist ; and at once such a cry 
was raised and such threatening to march to the capital became 
audible that the commission did not vacillate any longer, but 
granted what was demanded. Of the thirty-five articles which 
the revolters presented the following were the principal ones : 
To expel the regent from the viceroy ship ; to abolish the new 
duties, the permits and the return permits, forever ; to reduce 
the other duties to two per cent ; to put the sons of the country, 
the Creoles, in public positions ; to require of the captain-gen- 
erals to organize the townsmen and to drill them so as to be 
always ready to defend their rights ; to concede full amnesty 
for recent disturbances ; and lastly to have the commissioners 
swear to adhere to these articles. When the articles had been 



264 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



transmitted to the audiencia, this body approved them in view 
of the grave circumstances, but secretly circulated the word 
that they had yielded to force and consequently were not un- 
der the obligation to fulfill the treaty articles. Fraudulent 
conduct that deceived the people who struggled for their 
rights ! When the agreement had been completed, a solemn 
jeremony was celebrated on the plains of Mortinyo where Ber- 
bero had gone into camp with his army. An altar having beei 
erected there, the archbishop held a solemn mass. And there 
the commissioners of the government on the one hand and the 
representatives of the people on the other hand, promised by 
oath to adhere to the treaty articles. Thereupon the tumul- 
tuous gathering promptly dispersed, carrying away copies of 
the articles, which they took as safeguards of their rights. 
Some of the leaders remained waiting to be appointed to pub- 
lic positions with which the audiencia was flattering them. 
Then they also returned to their respective districts. 

When all was over, the audiencia of the capital annulled 
the treaty and the archbishop and his priests urged the ignorant 
people to pay the duties and even to restore to the treasury the 
values of the tobacco and whiskey that had been lost in the 
revolutionary movement. Then J. A. Galan who had not been 
satisfied with the articles and had continued in revolutionary 
agitations, went through the north of the country to stir the 
people up. But he found them cold and dismayed ; they even 
threatened to apprehend him. In the south some towns re- 
volted, but without the needed decision and concerted action; 
the revolting spirit had died out quickly. Galan and some 
followers were persued by government forces, following them 
to the mountain fastnesses. Surprised at midnight in a small 
house where they lodged, Galan offered a desperate resistance. 
A few of his men escaped, others were wounded, and Galan 
himself, having been debilitated by a bullet, was forced to give 
himself up. He and three associates were taken to the jail 
of Bogata where a trial was instituted against them which re- 



COLONIAL TIMES 



265 



suited in the sentence that condemned them to death. Let the 
expressions of this judgment be noted! It disposed that 
Galan and his associates be dragged to the gallows, that their 
bodies be quartered, the trunks be burned, and the members 
be exposed for a warning in the towns that had been the 
scenes of their scandalous insults. Not satisfied yet, the 
judges ordered that the houses of the victims be leveled and 
salt be strewn over the places, and they even extended the 
curse to the children of the condemned men by declaring them 
vile. We give this in detail to show the sentiments that pre- 
vailed in Spanish colonial life. But the people began to see 
that in future they could confide their fate only to the justice 
of their cause and to the strength of their arms. 

In the year 1782 the illustrious archbishop of Santa Fe de 
Bogata, Caballero y Gongora, entered upon the duties of 
a viceroy. With skill, prudence, and benevolent mind he man- 
aged the political affairs, forgiving and forgetting past occur- 
rences-. He regulated church matters and fomented the mis- 
sions that were established among the Indians. Observing the 
rapid increase of pauperism the archbishop-viceroy strongly 
assisted the institutions that were established for the purpose 
of helping the destitute. The income of those institutions 
amounted to 60,000 pesos annually. As he was of the opin- 
ion that society was under the obligation to support its needy 
members, he proposed to the Spanish Court to collect for the 
poor a certain per cent of the salaries of the bishops, the dig- 
nitaries, and the priests and a part of the wealth of the rich 
citizens. The viceroy believed charity not simply to be a vir- 
tue, but a duty also, thus exhibiting noble qualities and that in 
an unlucky period of the colony. His principal merit, how- 
ever, consisted in the fomentation he gave to public instruc- 
tion. He opened various institutions of learning and labored 
for the establishment of a public university, taking thus the 
monopoly of teaching from the Dominican order. The vice- 
roy's maxim was : "Education of the youth is the principal 



266 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



thing and certainly serves as a fundament for the rest." How- 
ever, the idea of a public school system was in no Spanish 
mind. He paid special attention to the mining industry which 
increased the public income and brought growing benefits to 
individuals. The Court, having been effectively petitioned by 
the viceroy, sent an able mineralogist to New Granada who 
discovered new mines, installed machinery, and gave new life 
to the industry which had been sadly neglected. He asked 
the Court also for naturalists who might study and disclose 
the wealth of unexplored nature. They came and through 
them he opened new industries in the colony and profitable 
careers for her sons. 

In the year 1789 Sr. Joseph de Espeleta was appointed 
viceroy. He had finished a successful career as governor of 
Cuba and he filled his page in the Granadian history. He 
directed his first attention to the public income and to economy 
in expenses. These measures were so much more urgent as 
his predecessors had contracted a debt of two million -pesos. 
After some time Espeleta saw his efforts crowned with suc- 
cess ; for he did not simply pay the public debt, but secured 
an annual surplus of 375,000 pesos. He also favored mission 
work, which had degenerated. Some missionaries renewed 
the old apostolic zeal that used to overcome all difficulties and 
had brought over 20,000 Indians to a civilized life. The vice- 
roy saw to it that some Franciscans were sent to the valley of 
the Amazon river where Samuel Fritz, a Jesuit, called "the 
apostle of the Marathon," had formerly labored with great 
success. Sr. Espeleta, as his predecessor had done, favored 
benevolent work and labored to improve the lot of the poor, 
going himself out among the merchants to solicit gifts for the 
hospitals. Not less desirous to foment public instruction than 
the archbishop-viceroy, he opened primary schools in the sub- 
urbs of the capital, in other cities, and in towns of larger size, 
and likewise paid attention to higher education. As to mater- 
ial improvements he built bridges, finished the fortifications of 



COLONIAL TIMES 



267 



the Cartagena bay, and beautified the capital by opening broad 
avenues. The viceroy's young nephew, Manuel Rodriguez, 
published the first paper in the colony in 1791. — Sr. Espeleta 
studied, and strove to understand, the resources of the country 
he governed and the privileges that should be conceded to 
foment the industries. He, therefore, proposed to the Span- 
ish Court to abolish all monopolies, and in their stead to intro- 
duce premiums for some export articles and a light duty on 
other articles. In this way he provided for the public treasury 
what the monopoly used to produce, and thus he brought new 
energy into the country's industry, whereby both individual 
and general prosperity was favored. 

In France the revolution shook the very foundations of 
society at this time. Its rolling waves could not be contained 
in Europe ; they rolled on and on and even reached Spanish 
South America. The king forbade the introduction of books 
which gave accounts of the French turmoil, into his colonies. 
But as prohibition creates curiosity everywhere, so it did here. 
Endeavors were made to smuggle the prohibited books stealthi- 
ly into the colony. Among the books thus introduced was the 
"History of the Constitutional Assembly." The captain of 
the viceroy's guard brought it to Bogata and lent it to A. Narin- 
yo, who translated that section into Spanish which treats on the 
"Rights of Man" and had it printed on his own press. Narin- 
yo's supreme desire it was henceforth "that his fatherland 
might have a nation, that the colonists might have citizenship." 
All he had, his fortune, his position, his life, he put into the 
service of the idea that possessed him. What he printed he 
circulated quietly among the young men who entertained his 
advanced ideas in politics. He kept this up for some time; 
but then his papers fell into the hands of a Spaniard who at 
once made announcement. The authorities were alarmed and 
acted very cautiously, waiting to find more evidences. Having 
succeeded A. Narinyo and twelve others were imprisoned. To 
force confession in the trial Judge Mosquera ordered to tor- 



268 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ture one of the prisoners, who, however, endured the tor- 
ture with manly firmness and did not in the least compromise 
any of his associates. Spain was the last of the civilized na- 
tions to abolish the application of torture ; it was applied in 
this trial in 1794 and in Spain as late as 1817. Narinyo pre- 
sented to the audiencia a voluminous and able paper for his 
defense. Hon. J. A. Ricaurte defended him and was for this 
defense punished with the confiscation of his property and 
with imprisonment in the towers of Cartagena. While Nar- 
inyo's companions were sent to Spain where the Council of 
Indias should decide their cases definitely, his own case was 
decided at home; for he went with the sentence to suffer a 
seven years' imprisonment in the Spanish towers of Africa. 
Having arrived at Cadiz, however, he was able to make his 
escape good. He traveled in Europe and dedicated the rest 
of his life to the liberty of his fatherland. Though Narinyo 
was an exile, his ideas and hopes continued to live in New 
Granada, and his secret agitation went on and on. 

Viceroy Espeleta resigned his charge in 1797 and P. Men- 
dinueta succeeded him. This able courtier and accomplished 
gentleman knew how to capture the good will of the people, 
an accomplishment so much more desirable for his administra- 
tion, as his predecessor had left grateful remembrances be- 
hind. He, however, directed his attention rather to benevo- 
lent and educational advancement than to material improve- 
ments. The missions were again in a deplorable condition; 
some merely kept alive, others had been abandoned entirely. 
The best means which Sr. Mendinueta could find, to remedy 
such deplorable evils was the opening of mission schools that 
might revive the extinguished zeal. He watched the man- 
agement of the hospitals carefully and proposed to the Court 
that they be directed by a board of respectable laymen who 
might be more competent than the clergy. The horrible 
plague of small-pox which had at various times decimated the 
population, especially the Indians, appeared again at this time. 



COLONIAL TIMES 



269 



The viceroy did all that was in his power to save the people 
from destruction. His principal merits, however, he seemed 
to gain by favoring instruction ; for he opened more schools 
and in colleges he introduced chairs for physical and mathe- 
matical sciences. At that time already wealthy persons do- 
nated sums of money to the welfare of the people ; for exam- 
ple in Mompax was a rich colonist who had a humane senti- 
ment. He supported the poor of his native town and founded 
and endowed a college, expending the sum of 175,500 pesos. 
In April, 1803, Sr. Mendinueta solicited royal protection for 
the establishment, which was the closing act of his adminis- 
tration. Returning to Spain he left grateful remembrances 
for the decided assistance he had rendered the colony. 

In September, 1803, Don A. Amar y Borbon took charge 
of the government. He was the last viceroy before the revo- 
lution which, in fact, was initiated during his term of office. 
The political events in the homeland which we shall relate in 
the introduction of the revolutionary period, exerted a power- 
ful influence over the minds of the colonists. The number of 
those who met secretly increased. They agreed on the plans 
that should bring them to the realization of their hopes and 
they talked of the moment which might be proper to act. But 
they were careful not to hurt the feelings of the common 
people who were ignorant in political matters and sullenly 
obeyed the authority that oppressed them. The viceroy, far 
from calming the restlessness, augmented it; for as he did 
not act with decision, but vacillated, he gave nourishment to 
patriotic feelings and force to the sentiments of revolt. In 
the first decade of the 19th century there were seen many 
gatherings and imprisonments, there were heard many hard 
words and quarrels ; the American born, the Creole, confront- 
ed the proud Spaniard ; by speech and by writing self-esteem 
was aroused and the common man was brought to look for 
higher things. This agitation continued until 1810 when it 
broke out into open rebellion. 



270 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



COLONIAL TIMES OF VENEZUELA. 
1367 to 1808. 

We made the founding of Caracas, the capital, in 1567 
initiate the colonial times of Venezuela. When in the begin- 
ning of the 18th century New Granada became a viceroy ship 
Venezuela was incorporated into it and only as late as 1773 
the colony was raised to a captaincy-general. Caracas was the 
residential city of the captain-general and of the archbishop 
and it was the seat of a college ; also a press which published 
devotional books was in existence. The population of Vene- 
zuela towards the close of this period was estimated at 900,000 
persons. The colony was, and continued to be, managed poor- 
ly and consequently did not produce much. Moreover the 
Spanish monopoly caused nowhere worse results than here ; 
for not only made it commerce dull, it also became the cause 
of continuous tumults. 

In the year 1796 various persons conspired against the 
government, pursuing republican aims. Having been arrested 
and imprisoned in the port of Guaira, three of them were for- 
tunate enough to escape. They went to Caracas and planned 
another revolt; but the imprudence of one caused their project 
to be detected, whereupon 72 persons were arrested in a few 
days. Two of the number, M. Gual and J. M. Espanya, suc- 
ceeded this time to escape and hid in neighboring colonies. 
Espanya, however, soon returned to Guaira secretly, was rec- 
ognized, and again put into prison. Somewhat later Vasconcelos 
came from Spain as new captain-general and brought the or- 
der to put the prisoners on trial. Seven of them were found 
guilty of treason and were sentenced to hang ; their corpses 
should be annihilated. Unfortunate Espanya was one of the 
seven ; his head was severed and exposed to public view in 
Guaira and the members of his body were sent to various towns 
for a warning. 



COLONIAL TIMES 



271 



The most renowned and distinguished of the Americans 
who in those times excited the Spanish colonies to revolt and so- 
licited assistance from foreign governments was Francisco de 
Miranda, who was a native of Caracas and was born in 1750. 
Having fought for the independence of the North American 
colonies under George Washington, Miranda was assigned to a 
Spanish garrison in Cuba. Here he was accused of seeking to 
deliver the island into the hands of the English, wherefore he 
fled to Europe. While journeying in England, Germany, Tur- 
key, and Russia, he was received with distinction at the courts 
he visited. The French revolution induced Miranda in 1789 
to go to France and to enlist in the republican army of that 
country. In a short time he was advanced to the high posi- 
tion of a general ; but the bad luck he had in besieging Maes- 
trich, the loss of the battle of Nerwinden in which he com- 
manded the left wing of the republican army, and the fall of 
the Girondists, one of the parties of the French convention 
with whom he was united, became the reasons why Miranda 
was put in prison and brought to trial in Paris. Having re- 
gained his liberty after the fall of Robespierre in 1794, he went 
to England once more with the hope of obtaining help for his 
fatherland from the English minister Pitt, who had at his for- 
mer visit shown a disposition to administer assistance for the 
promotion of Venezuela's independence. Nothing, however, 
having been accomplished after much soliciting, he returned 
to the United States. 

In New York Miranda succeeded to interest a few Amer- 
ican merchants sufficiently to advance the money that was nec- 
essary to buy two corvettes and other smaller vessels and to 
equip them. He also enlisted 200 men and with them sailed 
for Venezuela in the beginning of 1806, intending to land at 
the port of Coro. Captain-general Vasconcelos, however, was 
thoroughly advised and had made preparations to repel the in- 
vasion. Thus it happened that two Spanish brigs attacked 
Miranda's squadron when it steered into Venezuela's waters. 



272 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



A desperate struggle ensued in which the revolutionary leader 
lost two ships and 60 men who were made prisoners. These 
men having been brought to trial, ten of them were condemned 
to hang. Vasconcelos had Miranda's effigy burned in Caracas 
and offered 30,000 pesos to any one who would deliver him in 
person or his head. The inquisition judges of Cartagena in 
New Granada solemnly declared him an enemy of God and of 
the king and unworthy to receive bread, fire, and protection. 
Miranda retired to the island of Trinity and being assisted by 
the English admiral A. Cochrane, he united 15 vessels and 500 
volunteers in the English Antilles, with whom he sailed again 
for Venezuela. He landed without difficulty, occupied Coro, 
and circulated proclamations in which he called his compatriots 
to arms. The people of Venezuela, however, did not respond 
to his call. As his force was not sufficient to resist the 1 500 
men that were sent against him by the Spanish authorities, 
Miranda was once more obliged to withdraw. He tarried in 
the small island of Oruba from where he sent emissaries to 
Admiral Cochrane to solicit more forces. But the English of 
the Antilles denied him re-enforcements at this time, while 
Vasconcelos brought his army up to about 8000 men. Miranda 
thereupon went again to the English island of Trinity where he 
dismissed his troops and then returned to Europe, discouraged 
and dismayed, but still hoping for the occasion to give Spain 
an effective blow. The time for it did not tarry long. 

In his European seclusion Francisco de Miranda organized 
a secret society, drew up firm resolutions, and trained the 
young men who were destined to become the brightest heroes 
in the South American revolution — Simon Bolivar of Ven- 
ezuela and Jose de San Martin of Argentina. Theirs was a 
gigantic task, the liberation of a continent. In the quiet seclu- 
sion they imbibed the grand ideas we shall see them carry into 
effect in the awful struggle of independence. 



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273 



THE LA PLATA COLONIES. 
1618 to 1810. 

It will be remembered that during the time of conquests 
Asuncion on the Paraguay river was the principal city in the 
southeastern section of the continent, that from there expedi- 
tions set out to found towns along the Paraguay and the Para- 
na rivers, and that even the city of Buenos Aires received her 
permanent existence from Asuncion. But as Buenos Aires 
was most favorably situated, the town developed fast ; and as 
it is a distance of 650 miles from the Paraguayan capital, it 
needed its own government. Thus the Spanish Court decreed 
in 1617 to create the government of La Plata and declared it 
independent of the Paraguayan government. The new Argen- 
tine government exercised control over five large provinces. 
The governors were usually selected from among the leaders 
of the Spanish army who had most distinguished themselves 
in the wars which the homeland waged in Italy and Flanders. 
Diego de Gongora was the first to be appointed governor of 
Buenos Aires and arrived in November, 1618. Of the sixteen 
governors appointed to the Argentine colony only one was born 
in the country, i. e. was a creole. The government of Tucu- 
man had been established already in the year 1563 by the vice - 
roy of Peru, and exercised jurisdiction also over all the terri- 
tory of Cuyo which Chile claimed. Later when the Argentine 
colony became a viceroyship the territory of Tucuman was in- 
corporated into it ; but Chile maintained its authority over the 
district of Cuyo somewhat longer. 

Prior to the colonial period already Governor Hernandarias 
of Asuncion had planned the submission of the Indians by dis- 
posing that they be brought under the influence of religious 
training. He had sent various Italian Jesuits to the territory 
which lies between the rivers Parana and Paraguay and which 
was inhabited by the Guaranies. On this Paraguayan terri- 
18 



274 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



tory the Jesuits built up a great missionary enterprise in the 
course of a long time, the most extensive and best managed 
enterprise that Catholic missionaries achieved in South Amer- 
ica. At the beginning the Jesuits attracted the natives by 
means of coaxing and flattery, brought them into submission, 
and induced them to live in villages. A settlement in which a 
town existed and temples were erected, and in which the na- 
tives lived in a somewhat orderly manner, was called a reduc- 
tion. The missionaries were so successful that they established 
thirty-two reductions in the wilderness of Paraguay and Uru- 
guay, and it is reported that over 200,000 Indians lived and 
labored in these settlements. Seven of these reductions with 
40,000 natives were east of the river Uruguay or on Uruguay- 
an territory, which for a long time was called Banda Oriental. 
By means of their religious practices and wise regulations of 
labor the -Jesuits made of their missions republican models, 
all of which having the same simple and well calculated organ- 
ization. Each station was managed by four religionists : The 
rector who had the government in charge, the instructor who 
was the school-master and taught religion, the dispenser who 
received the harvests and saw to the maintenance of the na- 
tives, and the assistant whose special duty it was to study the 
Guarani language and to assist the rector in his manifold du- 
ties. Besides these officers there was . a board, composed of 
natives only, in every reduction. It consisted of a chief, of 
judges and regents who saw to it that the dispositions of the 
rector were carried into effect. The latter decided all ques- 
tions with great affability and from his decisions no appeal 
could be made. All the religionists stood under one superior 
who resided in Candelaria, the capital of the missions. 

Life and labor was somewhat communistic in the reduc- 
tions : for every man and woman labored for the community. 
To make the toil on the fields less hard for them, the fathers 
introduced many feasts. In the morning and evening at the 
tolling of the bell all the people gathered in the church to 



COLONIAL TIMES 



275 



bring thanks to the Creator. After the morning prayers all 
went in procession to their work, the image of the patron 
saint of the town being carried ahead, followed by the sound 
of the musical instruments. As the labor was moderate and 
interrupted so as to give the natives rest, they worked hardly 
seven hours a day. To break the monotony, splendid festi- 
vals were arranged that were followed by public rejoicings and 
succeeded one another without interruption. The harvests 
were placed in the storehouses of the community and with 
them the fathers fed and clothed all the Indians alike. The 
surplus of cotton, tobacco, hides, mate, and timber was taken 
to Buenos Aires and sold in exchange for tools, clothing, and 
other articles. — For the religious instruction of the natives 
the Jesuits published pious books in the Guarani language. 
They learned prayers and some articles of Catholic belief by 
heart. Many could read their language; but further know- 
ledge they did not acquire. 

There was one external reason for the good progress of 
these missions, namely the encomiendas which were established 
in all the Spanish colonies. To escape the forced labor, the 
contributions, the lash of the Spanish taxmasters, many Guar- 
anies went to the missions where they were kindly received 
and better treated. The Jesuits censured the encomenderos 
for their avarice and claimed that of Christianity they had on- 
ly the name; while the encomenderos hated the missionaries, 
because they shielded the natives whom they wanted to work 
on their ranches. — There was another class of people that 
hated the missionaries and their work and apparently hated 
everybody and everything else ; they were the Mamelukes who 
were descendants of Portuguese criminals and Indian women 
and were lower, more ferocious, and more barbarous than the 
mere natives. Portugal had formerly opened her jails and 
shipped her malefactors to Brazil. Now their offspring band- 
ed together and swept down upon the Paraguayan missions of 
the Jesuits and also upon the encomiendas of the Spaniards, 



276 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



robbing, destroying, killing. The repeated raids of Mame- 
luke bands obliged Father Montoga in 1631 to leave the towns 
in Guayra and to migrate with more than 12,000 submissive 
Indians southward to the territory that lies between the Para- 
na and Uruguay rivers. There a number of towns were 
founded of which the principal one was Loreto. Through this 
last enterprise the province of missions came into existence 
which now belongs to the Argentine Republic. — 150 years 
the missions existed and a number of generations were trained 
and drilled in them during that time ; but when at the close of 
that period the Jesuits were expellel, it was found that the na- 
tives, the product of their mission work, had not made any 
substantial progress in civil life. They were completely un- 
able to govern themselves and returned to a barbarous way 
of living, as though they had never become familiar with civ- 
ilized ways. 

That the colonists of Paraguay might be protected against 
the invasions of northern Indians, a series of fortified towns 
was established between the southern borders of Bolivia and 
the river Parana. Also in those northern regions mission- 
ary efforts were made. Francisco Solano, a Franciscan, who 
bore the fame of being an apostle of Peru, directed the work 
in those northern wilds and later came to Argentina with a 
large following of submissive natives. 

Difficulties between the Spaniards and Portuguese arose. 
The latter had founded the Sacramento colony on the Uru- 
guayan bank of the La Plata in the name of the king of Por- 
tugal. This Portuguese colony was located about 50 miles 
north of the locality of Montevideo, which whole region was 
claimed by the Argentinos. In 1680 the Argentine governor 
Joseph Garro dislodged them and sent their commander Lobo 
as prisoner to Lima where he died soon after. By treaty 
the colony was returned to Portugal. 24 years later Governor 
Inclan of Buenos Aires received the order from the viceroy 
of Lima to drive the Portuguese from Argentine soil and gave 



COLONIAL TIMES 



277 



as reason that the colony had for years disturbed the peace 
between the two nations. A strong force was dispatched in 
1704 to attack the Sacramento colony, which, however, was 
defended heroically and taken only after a siege of six months. 
By the treaty of Utrecht in 1715 the colony was returned to 
Portugal for the second time. — The Portuguese, not yet con- 
tented with this colony, intended to fortify secretly also the 
place where somewhat later the city of Montevideo was found- 
ed. The rumor having reached Zabala in time, who was gov- 
ernor at Buenos Aires since (1717, he himself went at the head 
of a force to drive the Portuguese from that: position. He 
was successful and he founded the city of Montevideo in the 
year 1726. Six families of Buenos Aires composed of thirty- 
three persons in all, moved to the new town. Among these 
first inhabitants of Montevideo was J. Anton Artigas from 
whom descended the celebrated leader of the Uruguayan rev- 
olution about a century later. 

However, the difficulties between the Spaniards and Por- 
tuguese did not yet cease, but rather grew worse when an at- 
tempt of the two nations to adjust limits, failed. In 1756 
Spain sent to the La Plata a force of 1000 soldiers under the 
command of General Ceballos, who drove the Portuguese out 
of the Sacramento colony and fortified the place. Then 1000 
English and Portuguese soldiers arrived in three vessels and 
five transports and attacked Ceballos. He, however, repulsed 
them with a loss and set the ship Lord Clive on fire which was 
lost with all on board. But in the adjustment of the peace at 
Paris in 1763 it was stipulated that the colony of Sacramento 
again return to Portugal and that the Spaniards hold the ter- 
ritory Rio Grande which today is a Brazilian province. — In 
the year 1777 the fight with the Portuguese was again re- 
newed; Ceballos took possession of the colony once more. 
He then departed for Rio Grande, but having arrived at Mal- 
donado, he received the news of the agreement made between 
Spain and Portugal. According to this the Portuguese should 



278 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



possess the island of Santa Catalina and the Spaniards be mas- 
ters of the Banda Oriental with the Sacramento colony, which 
had already gained a renown. 

The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 from the La Plata 
countries took place simultaneously with their removal from 
Chile, Peru, and New Granada. Here we wish to record that 
from Paraguay and vicinity and from Tucuman 359 Jesuit 
fathers were expelled and embarked for Cadiz, Spain. Their 
positions were occupied by friars of other orders, and with the 
income from their properties schools were supported. Their 
mission work, as stated, was lost. 

The past rivalries with the Portuguese induced Charles 
III., king of Spain, in 1776 to raise the La Plata possessions 
to a viceroyship and to send the most formidable expedition to 
Buenos Aires that ever had left Europe for America. It con- 
sisted of 12 vessels and 100 transport boats, carrying 9000 sol- 
diers. Peter Ceballos who had been governor for some time, 
became the first viceroy. The viceroyship comprised the ter- 
ritory of which the Argentine Republic of today consists, and 
also Upper Peru, or Bolivia, Paraguay, and the Banda Orien- 
tal, or Uruguay; that is to say it comprised about the fourth 
part of South America. The greatest benefit Ceballos bestowed 
upon the viceroyship, was that he declared the trade between 
Spain and the LaPlata free. — As late as 1801 the first paper 
was published in Buenos Aires ; its name was Telegrafo and it 
was but one year old when Viceroy Pino suspended it. Soon 
after Manual Belgrano edited another paper which he called 
Correo, i. e. Post. M. Belgrano was a young lawyer and sec- 
retary of the newly instituted consulate. He had labored for 
the success of free trade and then became active for the politi- 
cal emancipation of his country. 

English Invasions. The close, though forced, relation of 
Napoleon with Spain aroused the old grudge of the English 
who began hostilities against Spain and her colonies in the year 
1804, without a declaration of war. Four frigates which were 



COLONIAL TIMES 



279 



sailing out of the mouth of the La Plata and taking their 
course towards Spain under the wings of peace, were captured 
and plundered by the English. More than 3,000,000 pesos 
and a valuable cargo was the booty of this robbery.' In view 
of such a sudden and unlawful attack the Spanish cabinet de- 
clared war against England in the same year. England then 
dispatched an army of 6650 men under the command of Sir 
David Baird to take possession of the Dutch colony of cape 
of Good Hope at the southern extremity of Africa. But soon 
the report reached Buenos Aires that the English squadron 
had touched the coast of Brazil. The Argentine viceroy 
Sobremonte suspected that it would sail to the La Plata and, 
believing Montevideo to be the only vulnerable point, he went 
there with almost the entire force that was at his command, 
leaving Buenos Aires unprotected. As soon as Sobremonte 
learned the true objective point of the English squadron which 
actually sailed to the South African cape and captured the 
Dutch colony, he returned to Buenos Aires. General Baird, 
however, believing that the Spanish colonies would cast off the 
old yoke in case England came to their aid in force, sent 1,635 
men of disembarkation under General W. Carr Berresford to 
the La Plata. When the English landed and marched against 
Buenos Aires, Sobremonte was confounded and did not know 
how to take a single effective step to oppose Berresford, who 
easily overcame the poorly armed force that was sent to im- 
pede his march. He entered the city and took possession of 
the fort. Viceroy Sobremonte, in the mean time, had fled with 
his family, leaving the capital to its fate. Berresford seized 
the public funds, taking 500,000 pesos, and made the civil au- 
thorities and corporations give the oath of fealty ; however, 
not all submitted to this method of the intruder. Naval Cap- 
tain James Liniers and young John Pueyrredon, resenting the 
offense of the invader, decided to throw off the new yoke that 
had been laid upon them by force and planned for the fight. 
Liniers circulated in the city what means were necessary for 



280 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the attack, and without loss of time went to Montevideo to 
ask the there commanding general for help. This was con- 
ceded and Liriiers returned to Buenos Aires with 1,145 men 
who were joined by many volunteers. Camping near the cap- 
ital he sent word to Berresford, demanding surrender; but 
the latter replied that he would defend himself. The Argen- 
tine commander entered the city and, with the assistance of 
the inhabitants who fired from windows and flat roofs of 
houses, forced the English to retreat and soon to surrender 
(August 12th, 1806). While now the authorities of Buenos 
Aires gave the political and military command to Liniers, So- 
bremonte went to Montevideo to defend that place, for it was 
threatened by the English. 

Berresford reported to the English government both the 
capture of Buenos Aires and the succeeding surrender on his 
part and asked at the same time for more troops to attack the 
viceroy's capital again. Forces equal in number to those with 
whom he had arrived the first time, were granted him. These 
having reached him the English took Montevideo at the be- 
ginning of the year 1807. Viceroy Sobremonte again took to 
flight shamefully and soon after was suspended from office by 
popular vote and sent to Spain. Three months after the cap- 
ture of Montevideo General Whitelock arrived and united all 
the English forces for the purpose of again attacking Buenos 
Aires. His army which was 9,880 men strong, landed at 
Ensenyada in June, 1807. Buenos Aires not being idle had or- 
ganized an army of 6,860 men who marched out to defend the 
passage of a rivulet. The English avoided the attack, crossed 
the river at another place, and took a position in Miserere. 
Here the first skirmish took place in which the Argentine 
forces commanded by Liniers were defeated, whereupon they 
took a position in Chacarita. The fate of Buenos Aires 
seemed to be sealed ; for the enemy was before its gates and 
the entrance unobstructed. However, the man of the hour 
is at hand ; Judge Alzaga exhibits the energy that overcomes 



COLONIAL TIMES 



281 



all difficulties. He has ditches opened in the streets that lead 
to the plaza, places artillery in them, organizes the defense in 
all important places, and awaits the attack. At daybreak on 
July 5th the English columns begin to move and a bloody com- 
bat soon rages in the city's streets. On all sides where the 
enemy appears he is repulsed with the valor of heroes, in a 
battle whose furies roar the whole day through. As night 
falls the English have suffered a loss of 1,130 dead and 
wounded men and of 1,500 prisoners, 120 of whom were offi- 
cers. When the battle was renewed the following morning, 
Whitelock soon lost all hope of success and capitulated. He 
promised to evacuate Buenos Aires and vicinity within forty- 
eight hours, to return to Montevideo, and to withdraw all his 
troops from the La Plata river within two months. He kept 
his word. This splendid victory was applauded in Spain and 
all her colonies. The Argentinos who alone had defeated a 
well armed veteran army, then began to feel their own impor- 
tance and strength and to look with confidence for the ap- 
proaching revolution of independence. 

James Liniers, though he was of French descent, had 
spent thirty years in Spanish services, had accomplished much 
for that cause, and was, therefore, elected viceroy of the La 
Plata colony by popular vote. The Spanish party, however, 
which was controlled in Buenos Aires by Alzaga, the hero of 
the last defense, and in Montevideo by Elio, withheld him 
their confidence, because they believed him inclined, through 
nationalism, towards Napoleon who at that time was extend- 
ing his power over Europe; while the Creoles of Argentina 
defended him against the unjust plots of which he became the 
victim. The Spanish party gained their point in the conten- 
tion before the Court, and the General Assembly of Madrid 
appointed Sr. Cisneros viceroy in 1809. Cisneros was one of 
the naval commanders who had brought some glory out of the 
loss of the memorable battle of Trafalgar and became the 
eleventh and the last viceroy of the La Plata colony. His first 



282 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



official acts alienated him the sympathies of the people. He 
ruled violently, ordering the imprisonment of popular young 
Pueyrredon, dissolving the provincial assemblies, and approv- 
ing only the acts of the Montevideo assembly which was royal- 
istic in sentiment. This violent way of procedure, together with 
the conditions of Spain and especially of the royal family which 
were dominated by Napoleon, augmented the prestige and the 
number of the Creole party. In 1809 the latter appointed a 
committee of seven who constituted the board of directors. 
It was their business to watch over the American interests and 
to direct, in case of necessity, the work of emancipation ; young 
Manuel Belgrano was chairman of this committee. The con- 
tinuation follows in the period of revolution. 




A TILTING STONE . 
Found in the Argentine Republic 



COLONIAL TIMES 



283 



BRAZIL AS COLONY. 
J 577 t° T 76o. 

The history of Brazil during the colonial times consists 
largely in bloody wars which the Portuguese were obliged to 
carry on not simply with the Indians, but with the Dutch and 
the French also whose endeavor it was to seize sections of the 
vast and rich Brazilian domains. The Jesuit fathers were en- 
gaged in missionary labors among the natives and prevented 
that the Indians were reduced to slavery and oppressed by the 
Portuguese. The province Sao Paulo in the southern section 
of the country was the principal field of their labors. They 
founded towns which today are flourishing cities, opened 
schools for the instruction of the natives, and trained them to 
appreciate agriculture. Father Anton Vieira especially ded- 
icated himself to the defense of the rights of the Indians and 
brought their just complaints before the Court. But the Port- 
uguese encomenderos who saw their ambitious projects cur- 
tailed, disregarded the royal orders that were issued in favor 
of the natives, pursued the Jesuits, and forced them to seek 
protection among the savages of the interior. 

In the year 1580 a cardinal who had become King Henry 
of Portugal, died and Philip II. of Spain, son of Charles L, con- 
quered that country. Portugal and Brazil were incorporated 
in the Spanish dominions and remained under Spanish control 
60 years. The powerful Spanish sovereign, carried on wars 
with various European nations, principally with the Dutch. 
The wars with Holland became the reason why the Dutch at- 
tacked the Spanish colonies and why some of them went out 
to plunder and appear in history as pirates. Thus the Brazil- 
ian towns, Bahia and Olinda, successively fell into their hands. 
After a prolonged warfare the Dutch prince John M. Nassau 
was appointed captain-general of Brazil and, having landed 
with a numerous army, founded Pernambuco. He succeeded 



284 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



to bring the larger part of northern Brazil, from the mouth of 
the San Francisco to that of the Amazon, under his control 
and, by founding cities and enacting laws, he made his con- 
quest sure and firm. Under his administration which lasted 
only from 1637 to 1643 his domains attained great prosperity ; 
after his departure they began to decline. In 1640 the Portu- 
guese in the homeland rose against the Spanish domination 
and, having regained their independence, they placed John IV. 
of Braganza on the throne. Thereupon the Portuguese waged 
a nine years' war with the Dutch to regain their lost domains 
in Brazil in which they forced them to acknowledge their 
superiority in 1654 and to evacuate Brazil. 

After these long wars the commerce of Brazil was monop- 
olized by a Portuguese company which was under the obliga- 
tion to exclude contraband goods. But the resources of the 
company did not suffice to prevent the French from attacking 
Rio de Janeiro. After half a century of difficulties, in 1710, 
the French admiral Duclerc attacked that city with 1000 men, 
but was totally defeated, 500 soldiers being killed and wounded 
and the rest made prisoners. Duclerc himself was assassinat- 
ed in prison. This crime and the insult of the disaster brought 
the revenge of the French over Brazil. The following year 
the celebrated French admiral Digne-Truan left for Brazil 
with an expedition of 16 ships and 4500 soldiers to avenge the 
blood of their comrades. Rio de Janeiro, being abandoned 
by the Portuguese troops, was taken without resistance; for 
its ransom a considerable sum of money had to be paid. 

Besides these invasions and the constant wars with the 
Indians, the Portuguese of Brazil sustained bloody fights with 
the Spaniards of Buenos Aires on account of possessions in the 
La Plata regions ; for they claimed the possession of the Ban- 
da Oriental, or Uruguay, where they maintained the Sacra- 
mento colony. As we have learned, this country with the col- 
ony was after years of struggle definitely assigned to the 
Spaniards by the treaty stipulations of 1777. 



COLONIAL TIMES 



285 



The wealth of the magnificent colony of Brazil was at 
first but little appreciated ; the Hollanders were the first who 
spread its fame in Europe. Agriculture and industry con- 
verted Brazil readily into a source of wealth. In the north 
sugar cane, rice, cotton, and tobacco were raised and the wood 
"brazil" gathered. Towards the close of the 18th century the 
planters in the south began to raise coffee which today is pro- 
duced very abundantly. In the central sections which are 
mountainous mining was carried on and yielded large quanti- 
ties of gold and diamonds. In 1720 the district Geraes, be- 
cause it was rich in precious metals, was made a separate 
province and reserved for the crown. Soon valuable diamond 
deposits were discovered in the creeks of the Serro do Frio 
mountains. The fifth part of the products of private mines 
and placer mining, which was due the government, together 
with some other contributions, yielded the crown about 4,000,- 
000 pesos annually. Foreigners could not own mines in Bra- 
zil, and commerce was at first monopolized by privileged com- 
panies. The long distance between the settlements and the 
absence of roads made the development of industries difficult. 
Indeed, as long as the government was intolerant and fostered 
a monopoly similar to that of the Spanish, Brazil did not de- 
velop and progress properly. 

For administrative purposes Brazil was divided into six- 
teen provinces which constituted a viceroyship ; each province 
was governed by a captain. The viceroy at first resided in 
Bahia and in 1763 he established his residence in Rio de Janei- 
ro. The viceroys and captains were subjected to regulations 
that were similar to those of the Spaniards ; viz., they were 
prohibited to marry, to acquire realty property, to make pres- 
ents etc. In case of death of an official the government was 
exercised by a commission which was composed of the bishop, 
the supreme judge, and an army officer of highest rank. The 
standing army consisted of 16,000 men. 

Under the government of King Joseph II. a new era began 



286 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



to dawn for Brazil in 1759. His celebrated minister Marquis 
Pombal in that year introduced important reforms in Brazil 
which were beneficial to the colony and redounded to the wel- 
fare of the home government. He gave impulse to commerce, 
declared the Indians free, alleviated the sad condition of the 
African slaves, appointed men born in Brazil, Creoles, to higher 
public offices, encouraged immigration, erected fortifications 
and public buildings, opened schools, and expelled the Jesuits 
from all the domains of Portugal. Three of these reforms ; 
namely, impulse to commerce, Creoles appointed to higher of- 
fices, immigration encouraged, were far in advance of the 
times and never actively taken in consideration by the Span- 
iards. Here the reasons lie why the Spanish colonies revolted 
early and why the Brazilians were well content with monarch- 
ical rule until a late date. — Towards the close of the 18th 
century Brazil had a population of 3,000,000 people, exclu- 
sive of the savage Indians. Some more than 200,000 of the 
population had immigrated from Europe, about 800,000 were 
submissive Indians, and the rest Negro slaves, who had been 
brought from Africa to work in the mines and to cultivate the 
fields. According to this report there were 2,000,000 African 
slaves in the Brazilian colony. 



COLONIAL TIMES 



287 



THE GUIANAS. 
1580 to ipio. 

The Spaniards must have also settled very early in the 
northeastern section of the continent which was called Guiana. 
For when the Dutch began to establish trading stations on the 
banks of the Pomeroon and other rivers in 1580, they were at- 
tacked by Spaniards and speedily driven out. Only in 1602 
they obtained a foothold on the banks of the river Essequibo. 
During the 17th and the early part of the 18th century the 
Dutch were frequently harassed by incursions of the French 
and by internal insurrections. Towards the close of the 18th 
century the feelings of the inhabitants had become strongly 
influenced by a desire to place themselves under British sov- 
ereignty, and in 1796 effect was given to that desire by the 
cession of the colony to an expedition under Major-General 
Whyte, which was finally confirmed by the peace of 1814. 

Thus British Guiana was established. Its area may be 
stated at 76,000 square miles, a territory much larger than 
England and Wales combined. But if the claims of the Ven- 
ezuelan and Brazilian governments respectively are admitted, 
the British portion will be reduced to something above 12,000 
square miles and will become the smallest of the European 
colonies in that region. There are but two towns, properly 
speaking: Georgetown, the capital, and New Amsterdam. 
Agriculture is not well developed. The culture of cotton and 
coffee was begun; cotton is not raised at all now and coffee 
only for home purposes. All available resources have been 
concentrated on the production of sugar and rum. The timber 
trade, however, has become important. In the coast region 
there are 130 sugar estates, 70 provision estates, 80 cattle 
farms, about 20 coffee and 10 cocoa-nut farms. The popula- 
tion in 1891 was 287,981. 

Dutch Guiana. As stated, the Dutch established them- 



238 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



selves in Guiana very early. When a section of their territory 
was conceded to the English in 1796, they still retained pos- 
session of a large colony. At present they hold 46,000 square 
miles, nearly four times the area of the Netherlands. In 1893 
the population was 62,469 persons. — The rivers all empty in- 
to the Atlantic ; the most considerable is the Surinam which 
has a course of 300 miles. On its bank Paramaribo, the cap- 
ital, lies, about 10 miles distant from its mouth. Only a small 
part of the colony has been explored and only about 30,000 
acres are under cultivation, which are all along the coastline. 
The products and exports are naturally the same as those of 
British Guiana, adjoining it on the west. 

French Guiana. This lies east of the Dutch colony, so 
that the latter is between it and the British. France occupied 
that territory in 1633. Its area is 31,000 square miles, includ- 
ing some islands near the coast, of which the principal one is 
Cayenne on which the capital bearing the same name, is sit- 
uated. In 1886 the population of French Guiana was 26,905 
and in 1889 it was 25,600. As the colony is bounded on the 
northeast by the Atlantic, it has the trade-winds of the ocean 
which bring a temperate moisture. The thermometer seldom 
rises above 90 degrees or falls below 75 degrees. The chief 
products and exports are choice woods for ornamental pur- 
poses, rice, maize, coffee, cacao, sugar, cotton, nutmeg, cloves, 
and pepper. In accordance with an imperial decree of 1854 
Guiana has been made the principal seat of the penal settle- 
ments of France which is maintained at Cayenne at the na- 
tional charge. A recent French budget was charged with the 
sum of a little less than $27,000 for ordinary expenses of gov- 
ernment in Guiana and a little less than $400,000 for the penal 
settlement of Cayenne. 

As the colonists of the three Guianas did not revolt and 
still continue to live in colonial relations to the respective 
European countries, we can not refer to them in the following 
periods of this history. 



DIVISION III 
MODERN SOUTH AMERICA 

1810 to 1912 



19 



289 



odern times were introduced into the continent by the 



JLVL revo ^ u ^ onar y movements. In a tenacious struggle of 
fourteen years the colonies broke the chains of Spanish despot- 
ism. The emancipated countries established their own govern- 
ments, which are republican, unitary or federal, and opened 
their doors to modern thought and progress. Though the re- 
publics accepted modern inventions and methods, yet one who 
has lived in the United States, feels on the southern continent 
that the masses of the people do not yet enjoy true liberty, 
because their consciences and sentiments are still under the 
sway of the prevailant power that has exerted its influence 
over them now four centuries. Periods VI. and VII. of this 
history comprise Modern South America. 




GONTENTS CF DIVISION III 

Modern South America 



PAGE 

289—583 



PERIOD VI. 

Revolution and Independence, 1810 to 1826 



296 — 412 



Prospective View of the Period . 297 
Scandals of the Spanish Court 298 
^Effects upon the colonies . . 299 

/--The great leaders 301 

The Holy Alliance 302 

Revolution of Venezuela 303 

Francisco de Miranda .... 304 
Dangers of the young republic 304 
Patriots completely defeated . 305 

Simon Bolivar 306 

All is lost 310 

Revolution of New Granada and 

Quito 312 

Governing juntas 313 

A great mistake 313 

A heroic city . . . 314 

Revolution of Chile 316 

The Creole' party 316 

J. M. Rozas, the leader . . .318 

J. M. Carrera 319 

Dangers from Peru 321 

Bernhdrd O'Higgins .... 323 

G. Gainza 324 

M. Osorio 326 

Disaster of Rancagua .... 326 
Spanish reoccupation .... 327 

Revolution and Independence of 

the Argentine provinces . 329 

Upper Peru 329 

Governing junta 330 

Two triumvirates 331 

Movements against opposition 332 
Jose de San Martin ...... 334 



Revolution and Independence of 

Uruguay 337 

Jose Artigas . . 337 

Brazilian occupation 337 

Thirty-three in all 338 

War of Argentina with Brazil 339 

Independence of Paraguay .... 340 
Movements against the Argen- 
tines 340 

Dr. Francis and his pedantic 

methods 340 

Independence of Chile 342 

San Martin's great project . 342 

Chilean emigrants 342 

Guerillas in Chile 343 

Encampment in Mendoza . . 344 
San Martin's army crosses the 

Andes 345 

Battle of Chacabuco 350 

Campaign in the south .... 354 
Second invasion of Osorio . . 354 

Victory of Maipo 355 

Capture of the Maria Isabel . 361 

Lord Cochrane 362 

Liberating expedition to Peru 363 
Administration of O'Higgins . 365 

His dictature 365 

His abdication 366 

Adventures and drastic ends 

of the Carreras 367 



291 



292 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION III 



PAGE 

Independence and Organization of 
the Colombian Confedera- 



tion 370 

Feats of McGregor and Paez 371 
Bolivar, chief commander . .371 

Morillo, his opponent .... 372 

Paez defeats him 374 

Bolivar crosses the Andes . . 375 

Battle of Boyaca 377 

Colombian Confederation . . 378 

Morillo defeated 379 

Battle of Carabobo 380 

The confederation ratified . . 381 

Battle of Pichincha 382 

Independence of Peru 384 

Pumacaguas insurrection . . . 384 

San Martin in Peru 385 

Capture of the Esmeralda and 

Arenales' successes . . . 386 

New negotiations 387 

Declaration of Peru's inde- 
pendence 387 

Interview of San Martin and 

Bolivar 388 

San Martin's retirement . . . 389 
Last years of San Martin and 

O'Higgins 389 



PAGE 



Bolivar in Peru 390 

' Battle of Junin .391 

Battle and capitulation of 

Ayacucho 393 

Last Spanish resistance . . . 396 

Organization of the Peruvian 

republic 397 

Establishment of the republic 

of Bolivia 398 

Last years of Bolivar and 
Sucre and the dissolution 
of the Colombian Confed- 
eration 399 

Revolution and Independence of 

Brazil 404 

The French invade Portugal . 404 
The Portuguese Court in Bra- 
zil 404 

Revolution in Pernambuco . . 405 
The King's return to Portugal 406 
Proclamation of Independence 407 
Campaign to Bahia and the 

north 409 

Political • organization of the 

empire 410 

Second revolution in Pernam- 
buco 411 

Last years of Dom Pedro I. . 412 



PERIOD VII. 

PAGE 

The South American Republics, 1820 to 1912 413 — 570 



PAGE PAGE 

Republic of Chile 415 2. Forty Years of Conservative Con- 



Eight Years of Liberal Endcav- 






. 421 






Administration of Prieto . 


. 421 


Ramon Freire president . . . 


4i5 


Constitution of 1833 . . . 


. 422 


His administrative labors . . 


416 


Diego Portales 






416 


Peru-Bolivian Confederation 


• 423 




4i7 


William Wheelwright . . . 


• 424 


Presidency of F. A. Pinto . . 


419 


Presidency of Bulnes .... 


• 425 


Revolution of Conservatives . 


420 




. 426 




421 







CONTENTS OF DIVISION III 



293 



PAGE 



California and commerce . . 427 

Campaign agitations 428 

Administration of M. Montt . 429 
Rupture of government and 

clergy 429 

Administration of J. J. Perez 431 
Burning of the Campania . . 432 
Spanish-Chilean conflict . . . 432 

Araucania opened 434 

Forty Years of Liberal Legisla- 
tion and Progress . . . .435 
Administration of F. Errazuriz 435 
Political religious agitation . . 436 
Anibal Pinto's administration . 438 
Controversy about limits with 

Argentina 439 

Controversy about limits with 

Bolivia 440 

Conflict with Bolivia 440 

Alliance against Chile . . . .441 
War with Peru and Bolivia . 441 
Naval fight off Iquique . . . 442 
Huascar's cruisings and cap- 
ture . . 443 

Campaign of Tarapaca . . . 444 

Presidential changes 446 

Campaign of Tacna and Arica 446 
Conferences at Arica .... 447 
Battles of Chorillos and Mira- 

flores 448 

Chile occupies Peru 449 

Presidency of D Santa Maria 449 
War with Peru continued . . 450 
Victory of Huamachuco . . .451 

Close of the war 452 

Chile's internal affairs . . . 452 
Reforms in church matters . 453 
Balmaceda's administration . . 454 
War declared by the consti- 
tutionalists 456 

Organization of the constitu- 
tional army 457 



PAGE 

Battle of the Aconcagua . . .457 
Battle of Vinya del Mar . . . 459 
Statistical report 461 

The Republic of Peru 467 

A survey of 50 years .... 467 

Gamarra as president .... 468 

President Orbegoso 469 

Castilla's administration . . . 470 

Pezet's term 471 

Administration of President 

Balta 472 

Transitory prosperity 473 

Election days of 1872 .... 473 

Four days of dictature .... 474 

Assassination and terror . . . 475 

Return of Pardo 475 

Prado's administration .... 476 

Civil war 477 

Late presidents 478 

Statistical report 479 

Imports and exports 480 

An inauguration 481 

Republic of Bolivia 483 

Presidents 483 

Constitution 484 

Description 485 

Tables of commerce 486 

The Argentine Republic 489 

1. Anarchy 489 

Manuel Sarratea 490 

Martin Rodriguez 490 

Las Heras 491 

Bernhard Rivadavia 491 

Governor Dorrego 492 

Lavalle's revolution 492 

2. Tyranny of Rosas 493 

Campaigns against Rosas . . 495 
Agreement of San Nicolas . . 498 



294 



CONTENTS OF DIVISION III 



PAGE 

3. Republican Life 498 

Presidency of Mitre 499 

War with Paraguay 499 

Presidency of Sarmiento . . . 501 
Administration of Dr. Avella- 

neda 501 

General J. A. Roca 502 

Statistical report 503 

Description 503 

Imports and exports 504 

Railways 505 

Agriculture 506 

Immigration 507 

The Oriental Republic 509 

President Berry 509 

Colonel Latorre 510 

President Herrera 511 

Administration of J. L. Cuestas 511 
Administration of Joseph Batlle 511 

Statistical report 512 

The constitution 513 

Trade statistics 513 

The Republic of Paraguay . . .517 

The two Lopez 517 

The presidents 518 

The constitution .518 

Statistical report 519 

Imports and exports 520 

Brazil 523 

Dom Pedro II 523 

The presidents 524 

The constitution 524 

Description 525 

Statistical report 527 

Foreign trade 528 

Coffee-raising 530 

Appendix 

PAGE 

1. Material forces 571 

2. Intellectual forces 572 

School statistics 577 

3. Religious forces 577 

Churches at work 579 



PAGE 

India rubber 532 

Cacao 533 

Railways and rivers 533 

Republic of Colombia 557 

Gayecedo's administration . . 557 
Constituent convention . . . .558 

1. Republic of New Granada . . . 540 

Santander's administration . . 540 

1840 to 1841 541 

Administration of Mosquera . 542 

President Lopez 543 

Church regulation 543 

President Obando 543 

Administration of Mallarino . 544 

2. The Granadian Confederation . 544 

Presidency of Espina . . . 545 
Revolution 546 

3. Republic of Colombia 548 

Late presidents 548 

Statistical report 549 

Foreign trade 550 

Republic of Ecuador ....... 555 

Narrative 555 

Description 556 

Statistical report 557 

Imports and exports 558 

Progressive movements . . . 560 

Republic of Venezuela 563 

Narrative 563 

Constitution 563 

Description 564 

Statistical report 566 

Foreign commerce 566 

Railways and rivers 568 

Resume of the South American 

Countries 570 

PAGE 

571—583 

PAGE 

Mission schools 580 

Colporteurs 581 

Y. M. C. A 582 

Hope and cheer 583 



ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION III 

PAGE 

Simon Bolivar 307 

Bernhard O'Higgins 323 

Joseph de San Martin 334 

Chart of San Martin's Andine Passage and liberating 

campaign of Chile 348 

Battle of Maipo 356 

Dom Pedro 1 408 

Palace of Fine Arts of Santiago, Chile . . 414 

Anibal Pinto 438 

President of Chile 460 

The tunnel through the Andes 462 

Sheep-raising in the Andes 466 

President of Peru > 478 

General view of La Paz 482 

President of Bolivia 483 

Capitol of Argentina 488 

Tyrant Rosas 494 

Argentine cowboy 496 

Julius A. Roca 502 

Capitol of Montevideo 508 

Dr. Julius Herrera 511 

President of Uruguay 512 

Male Rhea 516 

F. S. Lopez 517 

President of Paraguay 518 

Panorama of Rio de Janeiro and its harbor 522 

Dom Pedro II 523 

Coffee culture 530 

Town of Santa Marta 536 

President of Colombia 549 

An Andine Monolith 553 

Birds-eye view of Quito 554 

President of Ecuador 556 

The capitol at Caracas 562 

President of Venezuela . . . 562 

?95 



PERIOD VI 

REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 
1810 to 1826 



296 



PROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE PERIOD. 



The servitude of the colonies could not last forever ; sooner 
or later their emancipation had to be accomplished. 
Various causes were bringing this result about, which Count 
Aranda himself, the prime minister of Charles III., had pre- 
dicted as natural and unavoidable. 

The colonies of North America set the example when in 
1776, under the guidance and leadership of the illustrious 
George Washington, they created an independent federal re- 
public. Soon after, the great French revolution of 1789 pro- 
claimed the rights of man and the sacred principles of liberty, 
equality, and fraternity. The revolutionists established the re- 
public in France and soon engaged in lamentable excesses un- 
der the regime of terror. A successful military leader, Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, seized the reins of government and had him- 
self proclaimed emperor of the French. In the course of time 
Napoleon turned things in Europe upside down ; but he could 
not destroy the great principles of revolution which had been 
propagated by the writings of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Russeau, 
and other revolutionary philosophers. As those principles 
could not entirely be concealed from the Spanish American 
colonists, they fomented amongst them the ideas of liberty and 
reform. 

Since the close of the eighteenth century seditious move- 
ments had appeared in various colonies, forerunners of the 
great revolution. The loss of the Spanish fleet which the 
English destroyed in the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, produced 
an effect in the colonies that favored revolt. The old rivalry 
between the Spaniards and Creoles brought a condition of 

297 



298 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



affairs about which constantly aroused agitations that were 
apt to cause uprisings. That the revolution might break out 
generally, only one occasion was necessary. This occasion 
came in 

THE SCANDALS OF THE SPANISH COURT. 

Though Napoleon had achieved a long series of triumphs, 
yet he had not been able to do anything against the British, 
because they lived isolated beyond the sea. As the Portuguese 
did not wish to forfeit their alliance with England, Napoleon 
purposed to send an army to subdue their country. At that 
time Charles IV., unworthy successor of Charles III., was king 
of Spain, though in reality dull Manuel Godoy ruled. Godoy 
had been an officer of the guard whom scandalizing Queen 
Maria Louisa had elevated to the position of a prime minister 
and whom she had given the title prince of peace. The heir 
to the throne, Prince Ferdinand, conspired against the favor- 
ite and lived in constant quarrels with his parents. In such 
circumstances of the royal family Napoleon bargained with 
Godoy, the minister, and obtained from him permission to have 
a French army march through Spain to fight in Portugal. But 
the French troops, or at least a division of them, took the road 
to Madrid. Then the people declared themselves against the 
favorite and the court, and Charles IV. was forced to abdicate 
in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Soon the dethroned king 
alleged his resignation had been forced upon him and made 
endeavors to recover the crown which, however, the son re- 
fused to return. Apparently wishing to settle the quarrels of 
the royal family, Napoleon proposed an interview in French 
Bayona, north of the Pyrenees. The king, the queen, and 
Godoy on one side and Ferdinand VII. on the other met there 
in Napoleon's presence and brought all sorts of recriminations. 
The latter passed the judgment that both, the father and the 
son, renounce the Spanish crown and that it be given to his 
own brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Ferdinand VII. and his par 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 299 



ents were retained as prisoners in different places of France. 
The son became an unworthy prince when he declared that he 
contentedly accepted his retention in the rich castle and park 
of Valencay. He went so far as to adulate Napoleon and to 
celebrate the defeats of his countrymen who were shedding 
their blood to regain his liberty and his throne. 

The perfidies of Napoleon and the imprisonment of Fer- 
dinand VII. aroused a general indignation in Spain against the 
French who occupied the capital. The Spaniards who were 
faithful to their king organized governmental juntas in the 
various provinces and created a central assembly in Sevilla. 
When the French had dispersed this assembly a council of 
regency replaced it and established itself in Cadiz where also 
the court or chamber of representatives met. It was the duty 
of the regency to govern Spain and her colonies during the 
imprisonment of well beloved Ferdinand and to organize the 
resistance against the French invaders. A bloody war began 
in 1808 and lasted until 1813. At first the Spaniards obtained 
a victory at Bailen ; but the French soon occupied the larger 
part of the peninsula and kept Joseph Bonaparte on the 
throne. The Spaniards called him Pepe Botella because he 
was fond of the good wines of Spain. In the mean time the 
British had defeated the French in Portugal and were asked 
by the Spanish regency to assist them in their struggle against 
the common enemy. The English general Wellington be- 
came the victor ; he defeated the French in a number of bat- 
tles and drove them from the peninsula. Simultaneously Na- 
poleon was defeated in Russia and in Germany. Only then, 
in 1814, he liberated Ferdinand VII. who, though he recovered 
the crown of Spain, lost the American colonies forever. 

What effects had these events upon the colonies? The in- 
vasion of Spain and the imprisonment of the king became the 
occasion in the colonies to revolt. The junta of Sevilla and 
the regency of Cadiz purposed to exercise in the colonies the 
authority that belonged to the king; but the Americans ob- 



300 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



jected. They neither wanted to acknowledge Joseph Bona- 
parte as ruler nor obey the Spanish junta or regency. They 
claimed that the provinces of the monarchy in America had 
the same rights as the provinces in Spain, to govern them- 
selves by means of proper and particular executive juntas dur- 
ing the imprisonment of the king. In all the colonies there 
were two organized parties — the peninsular Spaniards, high 
civil and church authorities, who demanded obedience to the 
junta of Sevilla and afterwards to the regency of Cadiz; and 
the American born or Creole party which did not want to rec- 
ognize those Spanish juntas, but demanded their own juntas 
to be elected from among the colonists themselves. Will the 
reader understand that the revolutionary leaders purposed ab- 
solute independence from the beginning, but did not divulge 
their secret purpose until later, having to contend with very 
much opposition from their own people. They made the as- 
sertion known : We shall obey the king when he is released ; 
but in the mean time we will govern with subjection to nobody. 
These agitations brought about the revolutionary spirit of 1810 
which permeated almost all the Spanish American colonies 
from Mexico to the La Plata and to Chile. Noteworthy is 
the concerted action throughout such an immense territory, 
fifteen colonies on more than a continent. While the Creoles 
established their national juntas of government and began to 
reform the colonial institutions, the peninsular party resisted, 
and the war began. Then the king had been in confinement 
two years. As in the homeland the Spaniards fought for their 
independence from the French, so in America the Creoles 
fought for their independence from Spain herself. Many bat- 
tles had been fought in many colonies, blood had reddened the 
American soil, when Ferdinand VII. returned to Spain in 
1814. The Creoles did not feel disposed then to submit to that 
monarch who was vile and despotic and even prosecuted those 
who had fought for his liberty. 

The revolutionists had to fight not only the troops which 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 301 



Spain maintained in the colonies and sent there, but also the 
general ignorance of the common people. For many the rev- 
olution was a sin against the king and against God, and the 
priests fostered this belief. On the other hand the revolu- 
tionists were lacking the elements of war; they had neither 
arms, nor ammunitions, nor money to buy them. Many 
leaders had neither preparation for nor experience in cam- 
paign life. Nevertheless their firm purpose overcame the 
difficulties and wrought wonders. In the first half of the per- 
iod the revolutionists gained decided, advantages. But the ex- 
pulsion of the French from Spain and the subsequent return 
of Ferdinand VII. to Madrid enabled the latter to proceed 
with greater forces against the revolting colonies and the rev- 
olution was defeated everywhere in 1814 and 1815. However, 
the leaders continued to battle on, warfare became a custom; 
victories were won and results achieved. The revolution of 
the liberals in Spain in 1820 which had been provoked by the 
king's despotism, impeded the departure of an army that had 
been organized to fight the colonists, wherefore the Spanish 
fighting forces in the colonies were more readily defeated. 
Then also the intervention of a French army in 1823 to over- 
throw the liberals of Spain and to re-establish the despotic 
power of Ferdinand VII. separated even the Spaniards in 
America from the Spanish crown and thus favored the revo- 
lution. 

(/ The great leaders of the South American emancipation 
were San Martin and O'Higgins in the south, and Simon Bol- 
ivar and Sucre in the north of the continent. Having liberated 
their own countries in hard fought warfares, the victorious 
armies of Argentina and Chile and of Colombia joined their 
forces in Peru, the center of Spanish power in South Amer- 
ica. There celebrated Marshal Sucre, subaltern to Liberator 
Bolivar, put the seal on South America's independence in the 
memorable battle of Ayacucho December 9th, 1824. The 
Spanish cause died there and then ; and the nations began to 



302 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



live new lives. When the young republics sought recognition 
at foreign courts, new dangers arose. 

After the fall of Napoleon, the sovereigns of Russia, Aus- 
tria, and Prussia organized the Holy 'Alliance with the object 
of fighting liberal ideas wherever they might be found and 
of restoring absolute governments. Spain, impotent to subdue 
her revolting colonies, asked this alliance for mediation and 
assistance and the pope for moral support against the new 
republics. But the diplomacy of the United States of America, 
supported by England, defeated the plans of the Holy Alli- 
ance. In 1822 the United States explicitly recognized the in- 
dependence of the new republics. In the following year the 
king of France, in accord with the Holy Alliance, dispatched 
that army against the liberals of Spain and placed Ferdinand 
VII. again on his despotic throne. But when then the machina- 
tions of the Holy Alliance were directed against the Latin 
American republics, President Monroe of the United States de- 
clared, that his nation would consider any European interven- 
tion in the government of the new republics as an act of hos- 
tility against herself. His maxim was : "America for the 
Americans !" The attitude of the United States and the com- 
plete and final victory of Ayacucho over the Spaniards lifted 
England out of her vacillations. This nation, under the guid- 
ance of her able minister George Canning also recognized 
the independence of the new American states. By and by the 
other European powers did the same. \/ 

After this somewhat lengthy prospective review of the 
South American revolution, after this birds^eye view of a 
continental transformation, we shall present the struggle of 
each colony for an independent existence briefly. Of various 
countries we must first relate the revolution only and after- 
wards the independence. And grand were many movements, 
and interesting was the tenacious struggle. Yes, fascinating 
are the victories of liberty and independence. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 303 



REVOLUTION OF VENEZUELA. 
1808 to 18 1 5. 

Two French commissioners arrived at Caracas in July, 
1808, to demand the recognition of Joseph Bonaparte as king 
of Spain. The people on their part demanded the formation 
of a national junta which should govern in the name of Ferdi- 
nand VII. The Spanish party of Venezuela opposed both plans 
and succeeded at last in having the authority of the junta of 
Sevilla of Spain recognized. Soon after, a new captain-gen- 
eral, Vicente Emparan, arrived at Caracas to govern the col- 
ony. He was a man of little tact and through violent ac- 
tions increased the dissatisfaction of the creole party, and that 
at a time when it became known that the French troops in 
Spain had dispersed the junta of Sevilla. The municipal 
board, or cabildo, of Caracas met next day, which was Thurs- 
day of holy week, to attend the religious exercises in the cathe- 
dral in a body. "While they were on the way to church groups 
of creole partisans urged them to return to the chamber to at- 
tempt the formation of a national junta of government. Hav- 
ing consented they returned and organized the junta which 
was revolutionary in character. They were about to appoint 
Governor Emparan himself their president, when J. C. Mada- 
riaga, who was from Chile and a priest of the Caracas cathe- 
dral, appeared in the chamber and very vehemently opposed 
that nomination. His words were applauded by the people 
and Emparan was prevailed upon not to accept the position. 
Having been voted out he left for the United States. That 
same day, April 19th, 1810, the cabildo was made the govern- 
ing junta, which began its work by dictating measures of far- 
reaching influence. They called a congress of representatives, 
organized troops, stored up arms, reduced the contributions, 
opened schools of mathematics, prohibited the introduction of 
slaves, declared commerce free, and sent emissaries to solicit 



304 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the protection of England and the United States. For Eng- 
land a commission of three left whose spokesman was Simon 
Bolivar, who then was a colonel in the army and later became 
a very prominent figure in the revolution. 

However, the western provinces, Coro and Maracaibo, 
were not disposed to recognize the new government. And the 
regency of Cadiz in Spain declared the Venezuelans rebels, 
decreed the blockade of their coast, and appointed F. Miyares 
governor of Maracaibo. The Venezuelan junta resolved to 
resist and appointed Francisco de Miranda chief of the patriot 
army. Miranda was the former revolutionist who had made 
several attempts, had failed, and retired to England, where 
he had organized the secret society and where he had waited 
for new opportunities. He had now returned to Venezuela. 
In spite of their difficult position the revolutionists thought of 
taking -a daring step by declaring the independence of Vene- 
zuela ere long. The first congress consisting of 44 represen- 
tatives, had met in the mean time.. After a lengthy and heated 
discussion they declared that the united provinces of Venezu- 
ela are forever free and independent (July 5th, 1811). The 
Spanish party conspired. A first attempt of opposition was 
suffocated and sixteen of the conspirators were shot. The 
junta then sent General Miranda to the west to subdue the roy- 
alists who had seized the city of Valencia. After several at- 
tacks the city surrendered at discretion. In the meantime Con- 
gress discussed the constitution which should be given the new 
state. Inspired by the example of the United States the Con- 
gress organized a federal republic composed of seven prov- 
inces. The government should consist of two national cham- 
bers and one executive power to be exercised by persons who 
were to be elected indirectly. 

DANGERS OF THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 

The Spaniards still occupied the provinces of Maracaibo 
and Coro in the west and that of Guayana in the east ; from 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 305 



the latter they made raids to the defenseless towns of the low- 
er Orinoco. The war that had been carried on for some time, 
had paralyzed commerce and industry, the soldiers were poorly 
paid, and all began to feel bad. In this critical situation a re- 
enforcement of troops and money came from Puerto Rico to 
the royalists of Coro. The vessel's captain, Domingo Monte- 
verde, marched at the head of 230 men to Valencia which lies 
on the way to Caracas. The patriotic government on their 
part had 3000 men at their disposal, who, however, were in 
the eastern provinces where they should impede the raids of 
the royalists. But instead of impeding them, they were after 
many movements defeated. On the day of this defeat another 
event occurred that threatened the very existence of the repub- 
lic. A frightful earthquake destroyed Caracas and other towns 
in March of 1812, burying 20,000 persons under the ruins. 
Only the provinces occupied by the Spaniards escaped the mis- 
fortunes of the quake. This circumstance and the day, holy 
Thursday, just two years after the first national junta had 
been inaugurated, gave the clergy the occassion to preach to 
the terrified people that the earthquake was a punishment of 
God for the sin of tearing away from Spain and the king. 
The reaction in favor of the Spaniards obtained great force. 

Monteverde arrived at Valencia where Miranda scarcely 
had 2000 soldiers, and these were discouraged. The patriotic 
chief considering himself lost, entered into a direful agreement 
with Monteverde. He agreed to surrender his arms under 
the conditions that the royalist chief prosecute no one for his 
opinions and that he permit every one who wanted to leave the 
country. Monteverde entered Caracas four days later, while 
Miranda, who was accused of cowardice and treason by his 
own patriotic friends, went with a few companions to the 
neighboring port of Guaira to embark. The moment they 
wanted to sail the commander of the port received orders from 
Monteverde to arrest them, the perfidious Spanish leader fail- 
ing to comply with his promise, and disposed that eight princi- 

20 



306 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



pal patriotic leaders be sent to Spain where they could expect 
to be remitted to the African towers of Ceuta for a long im- 
prisonment. All Venezuela was thus again submitted to Span- 
ish rule (July 31st, 1812). F. Miranda was retained in the 
jail of Puerto Cabello and later in jails of Porto Rico. He 
demanded the fulfilling of the articles of capitulation, but all 
in vain. He was taken to Cadiz, Spain, where the first revolu- 
tionist of South America and unfortunate general died four 
years later in a jail of that city. 

Enraptured by his triumphs Monteverde denied Captain- 
General Miyares obedience and was successful in his endeavor 
to obtain from the Spanish regency the appointment to the 
captaincy with the title pacifier of Venezuela. His mode of 
pacifying was to exercise horrible persecutions. In a short 
time the number of patriots he had arrested counted 1500. 
The imprisonments were followed by the confiscation of prop- 
erties ; hence, they became a lucrative business. These re- 
venges which were exercised most vigorously in the eastern 
provinces, provoked a new insurrection there. The rich and 
daring young men, James Marinyo, M. Piar, and the two 
brothers Bermudez, with forty companions who had found 
refuge on a small island near Trinidad, crossed over to the 
near-by coast and took the town Guiria which was defended by 
300 Spaniards. When their forces had increased they went 
towards the west and captured the city Manturin. There 
Marinyo and Piar repulsed the vigorous attacks of the roya- 
lists, who had been exceedingly cruel, having spared neither 
women nor children nor old folks. Then Monteverde left 
Caracas with 2000 soldiers to lay siege to Manturin; but the 
patriots repulsed and dispersed them (May, 1813). At that 
time the revolution also spread in the distant western prov- 
inces, adjacent to New Granada. 

Among the revolutionists who escaped the persecutions of 
Monteverde figured Simon Bolivar, a young colonel, who was 
destined to become the most illustrious leader of the South 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 307 



American revolution. He was born in Caracas in the year 
1783 and belonged to a rich and influential family of that city. 
His education Bolivar acquired mostly in Europe and he trav- 




SIMON BOLIVAR 

Liberator of the Northern Half of South America 
t 1830 



eled in his college years extensively in ' England, France, and 
Italy. In London he met Miranda whose secret society he 
joined and who was constantly active for his country's liberty. 
While Bolivar was in Paris he witnessed some of the closing 



308 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



events of the French revolution. In 1809 he visited the United 
States where he had the opportunity of studying the methods 
of a free government. When in company with Miranda Bol- 
ivar returned to his native land it was with the firm purpose 
to labor and fight with him for the independence of Venezuela 
and of all South America. So Bolivar was on the home soil 
when the outbreak occurred in 1810 and received a colonel's 
commission from the revolutionary junta. When Miranda 
was defeated by Monteverde at Valencia and the patriotic gov- 
ernment collapsed, Bolivar fled to the island of Curacao where 
he embarked with a few companions for New Granada to 
offer his services to the patriots of Cartagena who fought the 
royalists of Santa Marta at the time. 

A French adventurer, Peter Labutet, waged war against 
the royalists in the region of the lower Magdalena river. 
While Labutet took the city of Santa Marta, Bolivar at the 
head of a division undertook a campaign up the Magdalena. 
He fought the royalists wherever he found them, captured 
their towns, and cleared the whole province of Magdalena from 
enemies. Then Bolivar continued his campaign victoriously 
towards the east until he reached his native land early in 1813. 
The New Granadian congress made Bolivar a citizen of their 
country and a brigadier-general of their army and authorized 
him to march with Granadian troops to liberate Venezuela. 
Followed by only 500 men Bolivar entered upon a campaign 
against the royalists of his own country, who still had 6000 
men at their command. Flis forces increased on his march in 
Venezuela, but the royalists defeated a column of 200 patriots 
in Barinas and shot their commander and seven companions. 
Bolivar divided his army into two sections, intrusting the com- 
mand of the one to Colonel J. F. Rivas and himself command- 
ing the other section, and gave the order to march upon Cara- 
cas. The two columns passed victoriously through Merida 
and Trujillo. In the latter city Bolivar heard of the atrocities 
with which the royalists proceeded in the eastern provinces 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 309 



where Marinyo and Piar operated. He then published his 
celebrated proclamation : "War to death to the royalists." The 
rest of the campaign was a series of triumphs, while Rivas de- 
feated the royalists twice and united his division with Boli- 
var's. With about 2000 men the latter attacked Monteverde 
near Valencia July 31st, 1813 and won a splendid victory. 
Seven days later he held his triumphant entrance into Caracas, 
terminating thus a campaign of about three months in which 
he had covered 600 miles over mountains and through rivers, 
across marshes and plains and had fought fifteen pitched bat- 
tles. Of all Venezuela the Spaniards held Puerto Cabello on- 
ly ; for in the east the patriots had also gained great advan- 
tages, as Marinyo had taken even the strongholds of Cumana 
and Barcelona. 

Bolivar then undertook to besiege Monteverde at Puerto 
Cabello, but soon found it expedient to withdraw, because the 
royalists had just received a fresh re-enforcement of 1200 men 
from Spain. As Bolivar retreated the Spaniards started to 
pursue him, but were twice defeated on the way to Caracas 
whither Bolivar returned. The council and authorities of the 
capital appointed him captain-general of the army and gave 
him the title of Liberator. 

Monteverde was accused of dullness by his own officers 
and obliged to surrender the command, wherefore the Span- 
ish government appointed J. M. Cajigal captain-general of 
Venezuela. Bolivar was entrenched near Valencia with 1800 
men and attacked by Boves ; but he repulsed all attacks. The 
ammunition of the patriots was at a certain distance and 
guarded by but fifty men who were under the New Granadian 
captain Anton Ricaurte. Boves wanted to take the ammuni- 
tion and sent a heavy force. As Ricaurte could neither hope 
for assistance nor offer battle, he quickly made a heroic re- 
solve. He ordered his companions to withdraw and then 
waited for the Spaniards to enter the house. Then a frightful 
explosion shook the neighborhood and Ricaurte, all the Span- 



310 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



iards, and the entire building blew up. The patriotic captain 
had set fire to the powder and had perished with all his ene- 
mies. 

Marinyo approached with 3500 patriots to assist Bolivar. 
Then the liberator marched to attack the Spanish army which 
Cajigal commanded and won another splendid victory on the 
plains of Carabobo. All the artillery of the enemy, 500 rifles, 
400 horses, 8 banners, and a large number of prisoners fell into 
the hands of the patriots, while the latter had but 12 men killed 
and 40 wounded (May, 1814). 

About this time Ferdinand VII. returned to Spain from 
his captivity. The royalists found encouragement thereby and 
could hope for more re-enforcements, while the patriots felt 
the hardships of the war and numerous desertions began to 
take place. Boves having been re-enforced, then began to 
march against Caracas at the head of 8000 soldiers. Bolivar 
and Marinyo commanded but 3000 to oppose him. The armies 
clashed ; but in spite of their valor the patriots were complete- 
ly defeated, losing their guns and 1000 men either killed in the 
battle or shot after the same (June, 15th). Boves marched 
towards Valencia and having joined forces with Cajigal forced 
the city to surrender. Two days previous other Spanish divi- 
sions had occupied Caracas. In neither city did wild Boves 
accept petitions for pardon, but ravished mercilessly against 
the patriotic citizens. While R. Urdaneta, a patriotic captain, 
led 1000 men into New Granada, the liberator continued to 
retreat towards the east and was followed by Morales, a new 
royalist leader, with about 8000 men. When in Aragua it 
came to a clash, the patriots were again sadly defeated and 
dispersed, and horrible was the butchery of the prisoners and 
of the unarmed people that followed the patriotic army. It 
is , estimated that 4700 persons were killed on that dismal 18th 
day of August, 1814. 

All seemed to be lost again. Bolivar went to Cartagena 
in New Granada, where the patriots fought one another at the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 311 



time. As he did not want to see the sad aspects of such a war, 
he went to Jamaica. The rest of the patriotic army of Vene- 
zuela maintained the war somewhat longer in the eastern sec- 
tion and on one occasion even defeated the troops of Morales. 
In another encounter, however, Boves scattered them ; but 
happily this cruel chief was killed by a patriot lance in that 
action. Ferdinand VII. of Spain united, in Cadiz, a forceful 
army of 10,600 able bodied soldiers at this time to subdue the 
revolting colonies and Paul Morillo who had attained the dis- 
tinction of a general in the war with the French, was placed 
in command of this powerful expedition, with ample powers. 
Morillo landed at Cumana where Morales was in camp with 
5000 men. And now injustice continues and barbaric rule 
takes a wider sway. Morillo, having entered Caracas, ap- 
proved of the cruelties that had been committed against the pa- 
triotic citizens. When in the harbor the ship San Pedro was 
accidentally set on fire Morillo declared that the military treas- 
ury had been lost with the vessel and demanded a forced loan 
of 200,000 pesos from the inhabitants of Caracas. Besides 
this he organized a junta for the purpose of seizing and selling 
the properties of the patriots and created a permanent war 
council before which the people had to clear themselves of 
suspicion. Thus Morillo pacified Venezuela and then he left 
for Santa Marta to pacify New Granada, too, (July, 1815). 



312 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



REVOLUTION OF NEW GRANADA AND QUITO. 
1810'to 1816. 

When the news of the French invasion of Spain and the 
captivity of Ferdinand VII. reached New Granada, Viceroy 
Anton Amar who was a stupid man and without prestige or- 
ganized a junta in Bogata, the capital, which should express 
its sympathy with the provisional government of Spain and 
should raise funds for its assistance. Many were dissatisfied 
with this measure, principally the liberals of Quito who be- 
longed to the viceroyship of New Granada at the time. In 
that city the Spanish general M. Urriez an old, weak, and 
stupid man, managed affairs and began to take steps against 
his opponents, imprisoning them and thereby provoking the 
revolution. Captain J. Salinas with a few companions one 
night apprehended President Urriez and kept him in confine- 
ment. The revolutionists then organized a governing junta as 
whose chairman J. Montufur was elected. The junta had 
scarcely been organized when it was threatened by troops 
whom Viceroy Amar was sending from Bogata and Viceroy 
Abascal from Peru. Some patriotic troops, sent to oppose 
the force coming from the north, were defeated. This disaster 
put a stop to the revolution of Quito. The junta having se- 
cured the promise of a complete pardon, returned the govern- 
ment to Urriez and then liberated him. However, when the 
force of 800 men had arrived from Peru, Urriez changed his 
mind, not feeling himself bound by a promise, and arrested 
some 60 patriots. After seven months of promises to set them 
free and breaking those promises, he had on August 2nd, 1810, 
barbarously assassinated 28 of them. The Peruvian troops 
on that day committed all kinds of atrocities in Quito, killing 
more than 80 persons on the streets, sacking houses, and rob- 
bing about 300,000 pesos. 

In the mean time the revolutionary movement had spread 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 313 



throughout New Granada. In Cartagena and various prov- 
inces the Spanish authorities had been deposed and throughout 
the country juntas of home government were demanded. The 
people carried this movement so far that Viceroy Amar was 
obliged to call an open council to Bogata. This council delib- 
erated all night and at three o'clock in the morning agreed on 
the resolution that the religion and the rights of captive Ferdi- 
nand VII. must be respected. Although for the present the 
viceroy still maintained the functions of president of the coun- 
cil, yet a few days later he was deposed and sent to Spain with 
three members of the royal audiencia, and a governing junta 
composed of patriots was established in Bogata. Cartagena, 
Santa Marta, and Quito imitated the capital, also installing 
particular government juntas. 

The revolutionists of New Granada, however, made one 
great mistake. Instead of uniting their forces against the com- 
mon enemy they lost much precious time in discussions, not 
being of the same mind in regard to the organization they 
should give the country. Some were of the opinion of organiz- 
ing the various provinces into one confederation and placing it 
under one central government, while others wanted each prov- 
ince to have its own independent government. And not only 
did the Granadians uphold these diversified opinions ; they un- 
fortunately took steps of hostility, one province or section of 
the country against the other. Thus a lamentable war broke 
out in which brothers fought against brothers and which lasted 
until 1815. As Bolivar did not want to engage in this war on 
account of its sad aspects, but went to Jamaica, so we shall 
abstain from relating it. 

We have learned how Morillo pacified Venezuela and that 
he then went to New Granada to pacify it, too. He arrived 
at Cartagena with an army of 10,000 veteran soldiers in 1815. 
Cartagena had at that time the reputation of being the best 
fortified port in South America. The patriots defended the 
port with 3600 men and 60 guns, resisting heroically for three 



314 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and a half months and gaining for Cartagena the fame of being 
a heroic city. This was the horrible struggle in which the sil- 
ver sepulchre and the silver palm were converted into money 
for which rations were purchased for the starving defenders 
Blockaded by land and by sea the besieged experienced the 
ravages of diseases and hunger. They ate the meat of horses, 
dogs, cats, and even rats before they surrendered. In the be- 
ginning of December the number of deaths was 300 through- 
out the city per day ; but the defenders continued to resist 
with desperate valor until the number had been reduced to 
2000 sick and starving heroes. Then they abandoned the 
place one night, embarking for Haiti ; the most of them are 
said to have died on the trip. The occupation of Cartagena 
by the Spaniards was followed by horrifying atrocities. For 
example cruel Morales had published a pardon to all who 
would put themselves under his protection. 400 men, women, 
and children trusted in his assurances of safety, gathered at 
the place designated on the sea-shore, and were there murdered 
in cold blood. Ferdinand VII. awarded Morillo for this suc- 
cess with the title Count of Cartagena. This stronghold hav- 
ing fallen and the central provinces being overrun by Marillo's 
soldiers, it was useless for the patriots to make new endeavors. 
The royal generals Calzada and Latorre occupied Bogata May 
5th, 1816, and Morillo, the pacifier, followed soon afterwards. 
In a short time the jails were filled with patriots. As in Car- 
acas, he organized here a junta of confiscation and a perma- 
nent war council, or tribunal of purification, before which per- 
sons who were suspected of being patriotic had to clear them- 
selves of such suspicion; otherwise a jail opened and confis- 
cation followed. Morillo also made use of religious despotism 
to reach his end; for he appointed inquisition judges who de- 
clared books that were neither Latin nor Spanish, heretical. 
He extended his system of purification by terror into the prov- 
inces. Morillo boasted of the success he had achieved ; name- 
ly, that he had in but a few months shot 125 of the most not- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 315 



able citizens. Among these figured the enlightened mathema- 
tician, astronomer, and naturalist, F. J. Caldas, of Bogata, 
who was shot because he had served the revolutionists as en- 
gineer. 

After such deeds of barbarism Morillo returned to Vene- 
zuela where the patriotic guerillas disquieted the royalists. He 
left Bogata in the hands of Brigadier Samano who continued 
the regime of terror. Among this leader's victims figured the 
young heroine Palicarpa Salvatierra who and seven compan- 
ions were shot through the back, because they had maintained 
communications with some patriots and had favored their en- 
deavors. 

Thus we see Venezuela and New Granada in 1816, after 
six years of tenacious fighting, again under Spanish control 
and Liberator Bolivar on his sojourns in Jamaica. We will 
leave the revolutionary movements of the northern section of 
the continent for the present, keeping in mind the actual sad 
situation, and learn next what the patriots of the southern 
countries had accomplished in the same time. Finally we shall 
see the patriots victorious in the north and in the south. 



316 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



REVOLUTION OF CHILE. 

1808 to 181/ 

Directing our attention now to Chile's revolutionary per- 
iod we shall find that that country made the experience of Ven- 
ezuela and New Granada ; namely, after a successful war of 
six years the Spaniards reconquered the country, and indepen- 
dent existence was assured only after a second ardent cam- 
paign. 

A. G. Carrasco, a weak and stupid soldier, governed Chile 
in 1808 when the mail from Buenos Aires brought the first 
news of the French invasion of Spain. All the talk and con- 
versation then was to defend the kingdom and to preserve it 
for the captive king Ferdinand VII. The Spanish party 
which was headed by the governor, the royal audiencia, the 
high officials, and the clergy, demanded blind obedience to the 
governmental juntas of the homeland. The municipal board, 
or cabildo, of Santiago, the capital, however, directed the Cre- 
ole party and became the soul of the situation. Claiming the 
authority of a national assembly, the aldermen decreed taxes 
and distributions and prescribed measures to acquire war 
materials, and they demanded that a national junta be created 
in Chile to govern the country. The most distinguished Chi- 
lean families supported this idea. They were in majority and 
had great influence through their fortunes and extensive es- 
tates ; e. g. the family Lorrain was so numerous that the Lor- 
rains were called the eight hundred. The two parties irritated 
one another, until they were in open conflict. The Spaniards 
called their opponents rebels and insurgents, while the Creoles 
called themselves patriots and the others Goths and Saracens. 

In the clubhouse of old conspirator J. A. Rojas many 
principal Creoles met and it was rumored that they deliberated 
revolting plans. One night Governor Garrasco sent some sol- 
diers to seize Rojas, J. O. Ovalle, and Dr. B. Vera (May 25th, 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 317 



1808). Such a violent act precipitated the revolution. The 
people of Santiago demanded the liberty of the distinguished 
prisoners with much persistency. The agitation became 
threatening when it was learned that the prisoners had been 
taken to Valparaiso to be sent to Lima. When then the cab- 
ildo assembled and a threatening crowd gathered on the plaza, 
the governor was frightened and sent the order to Valparaiso 
to return the prisoners to Santiago. But Rojas and Ovalle 
had already been embarked and had left ; only Dr. Vera had 
been retained on account of sickness. The agitation increased 
with the rumor that the patriots of Buenos Aires had already 
established a national governing junta, and patriotic armed 
horsemen galloped through the streets of Santiago by night. 
The members of the audiencia, fearing greater disturbances, 
advised Carrasco to quit his position. The governor accepted 
the advice and, having resigned in an open assembly of nobles, 
Brigadier-general M. Toro, a Chileno, was elected in his stead. 
Sr. Toro, being a man of eighty years and debilitated by age, 
became the person whom both Spaniards and Creoles strove 
to gain. The old man not knowing what to do, conceded to 
the royalists the recognition of the regency of Cadiz and then 
listened to the Creoles and granted them the call of an open 
assembly to provide for the security and peace of the country. 
That assembly was called and when it met it was attended by 
the cabildo and audiencia, by high civil officers and military 
men, by superiors of religious orders, and 400 private persons. 
The great majority consisted of patriots who knew already 
what they wanted. Toro resigned and the assembly resolved 
unanimously to appoint a junta which should govern the coun- 
try during the captivity of the king. A national congress of 
representatives should be called and the seven members and 
two secretaries were chosen who should constitute the junta. 
This was done on the 18th day of September, 1910, which be- 
came the national day of Chilean independence. 

Only one man seemed to be fit to direct the revolution. 



318 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



It was /. M. Rosas of Concepcion who had in his native town 
exerted a great influence and had given impulse to the revolu- 
tionary movement. Rozas having been elected chairman of the 
first junta, his arrival at Santiago was celebrated with much 
rejoicing. Energetic and sagacious, educated and enlightened, 
Dr. Rozas surrounded himself with the most pronounced pa- 
triots and soon controlled them all. Under his direction the 
first junta organized bodies of troops and amassed arms. At the 
same time they decreed to open the ports of Coquimbo, Valpa- 
raiso, Talcahuano, and Valdivia to the commerce of all na- 
tions. This progressive measure lifted commerce out of 
colonial sluggishness, brought foreign trade to Chile's coast, 
and increased the tariff four times its former amount. 

The Spanish party conspired. Colonel T. Figueroa mu- 
tinied in the plaza with a part of the troops on April 1st, 1811, 
the day fixed for election of new representatives. A great 
concourse of people gathered, excitement ran high; however, 
two or three volleys of the faithful troops dispersed the muti- 
neers who left 14 dead and some wounded on the plaza. Fig- 
ueroa fled and hid in a convent whither Dr. Rozas himself 
pulled him out. He was sentenced and shot some hours later. 
This mutiny had caused the first blood to flow in the revolu- 
tion and opened an abyss between Spaniards and patriots ; f or 
evidences proved that the audiencia had instigated the mutiny. 
Rozas had it readily dissolved and in its place a tribunal of 
patriots was created from whose judgments no appeal could 
be made, even not in Spain. 

Among the patriots two directions of political sentiments 
came up— the ones wanted to change the old institutions at 
once and thoroughly, while the others wanted to go more slow- 
ly and retain much of the existing. The first, or radicals, 
were led by Rozas, the latter, or conservatives, dominated in 
the junta and later in congress also. The conservative faction 
drew up a code according to which the country should be gov- 
erned, and appointed three of their partisans to constitute an 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 319 



executive body. Thereby Rozas was voted out and he went 
to Concepcion to arouse the south against these actions. How- 
ever, opposition arose against them also from an unexpected 
quarter; for the stroke of the conservative majority was fol- 
lowed by a military stroke of the radicals, directed in Santiago 
by /. M. Carreva. This officer was 27 years old and had late- 
ly come from Spain where he had fought against the French 
as a major of hussars. Two of his brothers also held posi- 
tions in Chile's partiotic army. In accord with them he ex- 
cited a part of the garrison to revolt, dissolved the junta of 
conservative majority, and expelled seven of the twelve depu- 
ties of Santiago from congress ; the vacant seats he filled with 
radicals. All was done without shedding of blood September 
4th, 1811. The following day Rozas brought a similar move- 
ment into effect in Concepcion, established there another gov- 
erning junta, and a little later Valdivia followed the examples 
of Santiago and Concepcion. 

' Having now a majority in Congress Rozas and the radi- 
cals pursued their reformatory work. One law suppressed 
some privileges of the parochials in favor of the poor; anoth- 
er prohibited the infamous traffic of slaves in Chile and de- 
clared all their children free who might be born in future. But 
the radicals forgot that they owed their triumph to J. M. Car- 
rera. As he entertained personal aims, he conspired now 
against the radicals, as he, the first time, had conspired against 
the conservatives. Simultaneously he deceived the Goths by 
making them believe that he would restore the colonial regime 
and thus obtained funds from them. A military mutiny, as 
successful as the first, delivered the government into Carrera's 
hands. He replaced the governing junta by another which was 
composed of himself, G. Martin, and Dr. Rozas ; the latter 
being absent B. O'Higgins was given his place. Dr. Rozas in 
Concepcion refused to accept the position with which Carrera 
attempted to quiet him down, and when his friends in con- 
gress initiated a hostile attitude towards, and even conspired 



320 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



against, Carrera, the latter dissolved congress by force (De- 
cember 2nd, 1811). This act of Carrera was disapproved by 
his colleagues Martin and O'Higgins who, therefore, re- 
nounced their positions. Now then Carrera was dictator in 
Santiago and Rozas dominated in Concepcion. As such a con- 
dition could not continue civil war threatened and troops were 
brought in readiness to march. Already the opposing armies 
went into camps which were separated only by the river Maule. 
Naturally the Goths took advantage of the situation and got 
ready for reaction. In Valdivia they overthrew the revolu- 
tionary junta. In view of the common danger that threatened 
the patriots and the young republic, the two leaders at the 
river Maule arrived at an understanding according to which 
a new congress should solve their disputes, whereupon Rozas 
returned to Concepcion and Carrera to Santiago. Chile was 
now divided. — Valdivia and the far south obeyed the Spanish 
viceroy of Peru ; in Concepcion a patriotic junta governed, 
headed by Dr. Rozas ; in Santiago another, but a different one, 
was controlled by Carrera. In this situation Carrera made 
the endeavor to undermine the power of Rozas. Instead of 
sending him money to pay the troops of the Araucanian fron- 
tier, he dispatched secret emissaries to the south who should 
initiate a mutiny in Concepcion. The mutiny was sucessful ; 
Rozas and the other members of the junta of Concepcion were 
apprehended and replaced by men who were submissive to the 
Santiago junta or to Carrera (July 8th, 1812). Dr. Rozas 
was brought to the capital as a prisoner and exiled by Carrera 
to Mendoza, east of the Andes. There he died a few months 
later, sad and forgotten, he who had been the audacious revo- 
lutionist and the first promoter of Chile's independence. 

After the fall of Rozas, Carrera became all-powerful; 
his will dominated in the governmental junta. And through 
his brothers who held prominent military positions, he con- 
trolled the army also. However, J. M. Carrera used his pow- 
er to continue radical reforms and to arm the revolution. In 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 321 



Santiago he established the first press which he had ordered 
from the United States, and he opened schools in all the con- 
vents. He recruited new troops, drilled them, and procured 
arms and ammunition. Two convents were converted into 
garrisons under scandalous protests of the devout. Carrera 
sanctioned a constitution, or fundamental law, by which a leg- 
islative and advising senate of seven members was created, 
that declared any measure which eminated from authority not 
residing in Chile, invalid, and that recognized civil equality, 
liberty of the press, the privilege of leaving or entering the 
country at random, protection of strangers, and other refor- 
matory principles. 

DANGERS FROM PERU. 

The revolution had not yet kindled in Peru. The Peru- 
vian viceroy had powerful resources of money, arms, soldiers, 
and ships at his disposal He had already sent troops against 
the revolutionists of Quito and against the patriots of Argen- 
tina who were invading Upper Peru. The Chilean patriots 
naturally looked with anxiety towards the north and in reality 
Viceroy J. F. Abascal planned the submission of Chile. He 
intrusted the task to Brigadier-general A. Pare j a, who em- 
barked with a number of officers and with weapons in Peru 
and came to organize an army in the southern provinces of 
Valdivia and Chiloe which still were faithful to Spain. With 
2100 men Pareja soon landed at Talcahuano which is the port 
of Concepcion, and having occupied both places March, 1813, 
he marched north towards the capital. The rapid advance of 
Pareja produced unusual alarm in Santiago where J. M. Car- 
rera, head of the government, manifested energetic determina- 
tion to defend the republican system. To intimidate the home 
enemies who felt sure of the downfall of the republic, Car- 
rera resolved to imprison many, imposed contributions, and 
erected gallows in the midst of the plaza. Then he went to 
establish his headquarters in Talca, 150 miles south of the cap- 

21 



322 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ital. Carrera and his two brothers commanded the patriotic 
army, which consisted of about 12,000 men who, however, were 
not well disciplined and were poorly armed. The larger num- 
ber consisted of militiamen, men from the country who had 
even no idea of what a campaign might be. When the Span- 
ish army one night encamped in Yerbas Buenas, between Lin- 
ares and Talca, Carrera at daybreak dispatched a column of 
500 men to attack them. The enemy was surprised, disorgan- 
ized, and Pareja retreated (April 27th) . In his retreat towards 
Chilian where he expected to escape the harships of the ap- 
proaching winter, Carrera followed and overtook him at the 
town of San Carlos where a battle was fought that however 
remained indecisive. The royalists nevertheless fell back and 
closed themselves up in Chilian. Pareja grew sick and died 
soon after, leaving Captain J. M. Sanchez in command. Neg- 
lecting the attack of Chilian, Carrera marched to regain the 
cities of the south. Concepcion and Talcahuano fell into his 
hands and B. O'Higgins recaptured the towns' on the Araucan- 
ian frontier. In the meantime the royalists in Chilian were 
accumulating provisions and entrenched themselves, resolved 
to resist attacks until re-enforcements might arrive from Peru ; 
the Franciscan missionaries were their best supporters. At 
last Carrera, having returned with his army to Chilian, at- 
tacked the town and poured shot and shell into it for thirteen 
days. The patriots fought heroically, but in vain. They were 
in need of food and ammunition, of tents and shelter against 
the incessant rains and the cold of a rigorous winter, in con- 
sequence of which many soldiers fell sick and large numbers 
deserted. When Carrera at last had to raise the siege and 
retired towards Concepcion, the guerillas of Sanchez sallied 
forth in various directions. At the banks of the river Itata, 
at a place called Roble, they surprised Carrera's army; but 
courageous O'Higgins rearranged the disbanded troops and 
won a signal victory (October 17th). The governing junta of 
Santiago was occupied with the affairs of the war and to be 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 323 



nearer its seat resolved to move to Talca, contemplating then 
already a change in the command of the army. Carrera's vac- 
illating actions had aroused the sentiments of the people 
against him, while O'Higgins grew in their favor. Carrera 
accepted the change willingly and with his brother Louis start- 
ed for Santiago. On the way both were surprised by royalists 
and taken to Chilian as prisoners. 



He was thirty-six years of age, when he became comman- 
der of the patriotic army in 1814. He was born in Chilian and 
was son of the illustrious Don Ambrose O'Higgins who had 
been governor of Chile and viceroy of Peru. Educated in 
England, Don Bernhard had visited Spain and returned to 
Chile to establish himself on the rich estate near Los Angeles 
which his father had left him. When revolutionary movements 
were set on foot he had joined Dr. Rozas of Concepcion, had 
filled positions in congress and the junta, and after Rozas' fall 
he had again returned to his hacienda. Pareja's invasion had 
brought him into the revolutionary ranks the second time and 
after the battle of Roble Carrera himself had called him the 
first soldier of Chile. Bernhard O'Higgins became one of the 




BERNHARD O'HIGGINS 



Chile's first President 
t 1842 



324 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



four great heroes of the South American revolution and the 
father of his country. 

Brigadier-general G. Gainza came from Peru with 800 
soldiers to take the command of the royalist troops. In the 
south he tried to impede the union of the patriotic army which 
operated in two divisions, commanded by O'Higgins and J. 
Makenna respectively. Gainza attacked O'Higgins' division 
and was repulsed, next day he attacked the other patriotic 
division and was again defeated. However, a royalist leader 
had meanwhile with a guerilla band taken Talca and when M. 
Blanco Encalada came from Santiago with 1000 men to re- 
capture that city he was defeated by that leader at Cancha 
Rayada, leaving the way open to the ungarrisoned capital. 
Then Gainza united all the Spanish forces in Chilian and, hav- 
ing reorganized them, marched with this army rapidly against 
Santiago. However, O'Higgins advanced also in forced 
marches to protect the capital. The two armies crossed the 
river Maule almost at the same time — Gainza on rafts and 
protected by the royalists of Talca, and O'Higgins by night 
at a ford with the water up to the breasts of the horses and 
spied by enemies. His was a heroic feat. Having crossed 
the Maule, O'Higgins' army gained the advantage and en- 
trenched itself in Quechereguas. Gainza tried to press on in 
spite of the patriots, but he was twice defeated, April 7th and 
8th, 1814. Decimated by the marches and defeats, the retreat 
cut off by the Maule, and shut up in Talca, the Spanish army 
was doomed. A dismal suspension of arms only came to save 
it. 

In those days the English commodore, Hillyar, arrived in 
Chile, having been authorized by the viceroy of Peru to me- 
diate between the Chilean royalists and patriots. True, there 
were peculiar aspects of the continental revolution at this time. 
On the one hand the Spaniards were successful in all the var- 
ious countries — in Upper Peru they had defeated the Argen- 
tines, whereby the Peruvian viceroy was enabled to send more 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



325 



troops to Chile, and, according to the latest news from Spain, 
the victories of Wellington drove the French out of that coun- 
try and prepared the return of Ferdinand VII. who would, as 
was evident, send large armies to reconquer his colonies. On 
the other hand the first enthusiasm for the war in Chile had 
subsided, the free gifts of the patriots ceased, and forced con- 
tributions consequently increased. Then there were many 

families who had losses to lament and dead to bewail. Lastra 
« 

who had in the meantime become supreme director in Santia- 
go, took these conditions and circumstances into considera- 
tion when Commodore Hillyar presented his propositions and 
he came to a wrong conclusion. O'Higgins received the order 
to treat with Gainza who had not wished anything more ar- 
dently; for thus only he could escape the imminent ruin in 
Talca. According to the agreement that was signed in Lircay 
the patriots should recognize Ferdinand VII. and the provis- 
ional authority of the regency and courts of Cadiz ; while the 
royalists on their part should recognize the existing govern- 
ment of Chile, promised to vacate the territory within two 
months. On the one side and the other the prisoners of war 
should be given their liberty. Though neither of the parties 
thought earnestly of complying with these stipulations, the 
funest treaty made the revolution recede, saved the Spanish 
army, and initiated civil war between the patriots. J. M. Car- 
rera and his brother Louis who had been captured by the roy- 
alists on their way to the capital, had made their escape from 
Chilian, had reached Santiago, and now put themselves at the 
head of the discontented. The number of the latter increased 
when after the two months agreed upon in the treaty the roy- 
alists still remained in Chilian and did not leave the country. 
J. M. Carrera revolted, as at other times, with the garrison of 
the capital, deposed Director Lastra and created an executive 
junta whose head he himself was. O'Higgins marched with 
his army from Talca to restore the legal government, and Car- 
rera went to meet him with a force. They confronted one an- 



326 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



other to engage in battle when again an unexpected occurrence 
brought a change and this time led to the reconciliation of 
the leaders. Viceroy Abascal of Peru had not accepted the 
treaty of Lircay and had sent M. Osorio to subdue the Chilean 
revolutionists unconditionally. The new Spanish commander 
had disembarked at Talcahuano with a considerable number 
of soldiers, a supply of war material, and a good sum of money 
and was marching north. He had sent an officer to the pa- 
triots to demand surrender, who arrived when these thought 
of fighting one another. Carrera and O'Higgins rejected the 
viceroy's intimation and in view of the common danger they 
threw aside their animosity and became friends. They united 
their troops and in their midst walked arm in arm, showing 
their friendship. O'Higgins ceded the chief command to his 
rival, denying himself. 

Osorio advanced with 5000 soldiers well equipped and 
disciplined. The patriotic leaders could oppose with but 4000 
men, very inferior in equipment and discipline and still dis- 
contented with the recent sad experiences. O'Higgins with 
one of Carrera'' s brothers and half the patriotic army were to 
close themselves up in Rancagua, while J. M. Carrera was to 
take a position farther north with the vanguard. The first 
raised adobe barricades in the four streets of Rancagua that 
lead to the plaza and resolutely expected the royalists who ar- 
rived soon and attacked courageously. During an entire day 
the patriots resisted like heroes. Xext day the royalists cut 
the water off and set the houses on fire to open passages, re- 
newing their attacks furiously. The patriots, suffocated by 
smoke and heat and dying from thirst, waited for help from 
the commander in chief. And really they saw Carrera com- 
ing in the distance with his division, but soon turning again, 
without having attempted an attack which he doubtless thought 
would be ruinous. O'Higgins then lost all hope. Of his 2000 
heroes only 309 were left ; but instead of surrendering, O'Hig- 
gins mounted a horse and with sword in hand between corpses 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 327 



and ruins he opened himself a passage, followed by a remnant 
of braves October 2nd, 1814 ; and they got through. The dis- 
aster of Rancagua was the ruin of the first revolution. In the 
midst of a frightful disorder the patriots of Santiago thought 
of nothing but escape. Some went to hide in their country 
estates ; those who could fled towards Mendoza on the eastern 
or Argentine slope of the Andes, scaling the mountain passages 
that were still covered with the winter's snow. More than 
2000 persons emigrated in this way, Carrera and O'Higgins 
following among the last. Santiago and all Chile fell into the 
hands of the revengeful Spaniards. Thus the first period of 
the revolution terminated in defeat ; it was later remembered 
by the name "The old fatherland." 

SPANISH REOCCUPATION, 1814 TO 1817. 

Osorio, the victor, was not a bad and cruel man ; but fol- 
lowing the instructions of Viceroy Abascal he did acts of vio- 
lence and perfidy. Acting as though the past was forgotten 
he induced many patriots, the heads of families respectable for 
their age and conditions, to leave their estates and confidently 
return to Santiago. Many returned. One night Osorio seized 
them and sent them as prisoners to the dreary island of Juan 
Fernandez, the former abode of Robinson Crusoe, where for 
more than two years they suffered great hardships. The Span- 
ish chief established a tribunal of purification in Santiago, be- 
fore which the suspects had to purify their conduct by proving 
that they had always been faithful to Spain. The patriots 
had to suffer confiscations and increased taxations, and had 
to submit to forced loans. The insolent soldiers of the troop 
called Talavera, Osorio's favorite body, and principally San 
Bruno, their captain, made themselves fearful through their 
cruelties. Instigated by Bruno the guards of the jail terrified 
the people by killing some unfortunate patriots in their cells, 
with swords. The Spaniards tore down all that the revolu- 
tionists had built up. They re-established the royal audiencia, 



328 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



reorganized the cabildo, suppressed all good institutions, even 
such as, the public library and the national institute. 

When Ferdinand VII. had returned to the throne of Spain 
he sent Marco del Pont as governor to Chile. This was a 
young field marshal who was dull, conceited, effeminate.' Fear- 
ful of the preparations which the patriots made in Mendoza, 
Marco del Pont dictated terrible proclamations to assure tran- 
quility in the interior. He established a new tribunal of pub- 
lic vigilance and security, putting it in charge of horrible San 
Bruno, and disregarded the pardon which the king had sent 
for those exiled in Juan Fernandez. And lastly Del Pont's 
arbitrary and violent acts were of such a nature and so many 
that all the people turned their eyes hopefully towards Men- 
doza. From beyond the Andes redemption should come. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



329 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE OF THE 
ARGENTINE PROVINCES. 

1810 to 1816. 

The junta of Sevilla, Spain, appointed B. H. Cisneros 
viceroy of the La Plata provinces in July, 1809. The revolu- 
tion in that section of the continent had its beginning in the 
presidency of Charcas, or Upper Peru (Bolivia). President 
Pizarro of Chuquisaca believed to be able to calm the agitation 
that was caused by the news from Spain concerning the 
French invasion and the king's captivity, by ordering the im- 
prisonment of several eminent men. However, on the same 
day the people of the town apprehended that president, con- 
fided the civil government to the regent of the audiencia and 
the military command to Colonel Arenales. This revolt was fol- 
lowed by a similar one in the city of La Paz ; for the revolution- 
ists of this city also deposed the Spanish authorities and organ- 
ized a government junta and a military force for its defense. 
These revolutionists of Upper Peru, however, were attacked by 
enemies coming from the south and from the north. Viceroy 
Cisneros of Buenos Aires sent 1000 men against Chuquisaca un- 
der General Nieto, and Viceroy Abascal of Lima, Peru, sent 
5000 men against La Paz under Goyeneche who was president 
of the audiencia of Cuzco. Though the La Paz revolutionists 
disagreed and the junta dissolved, P. Murillo who was a na- 
tive of that city and daring, offered battle to the Peruvian 
troops, which, however, was easily won by Goyeneche. This 
general stained his victory by cruelties which he enacted in the 
city; for in five months he condemned 85 persons to the gal- 
lows or the cudgel, to jail or exile, and their goods were con- 
fiscated. General Nieto coming with an Argentine army, oc- 
cupied Chuquisaca without resistance. 

The news of the dissolution of the junta of Sevilla by the 
French reached Buenos Aires in May, 1810. The Argentine 



330 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



patriots believed that the Spanish government had ceased to be 
with this dissolution and consequently purposed to organize a 
national government, similar to those created in Chuquisaca, 
Quito, and Caracas. The people of Buenos Aires, therefore, 
being aroused by the patriots, knocked on the door of the gov- 
ernment chambers, asking for the appointment of a junta of 
home government. Viceroy Cisneros agreed to quit his charge 
and the other Spaniards had also to yield to public demand. 
A governing junta was appointed which was composed of 
seven patriots whose president was Commander Saavedra. 
The junta was scarcely installed when it began to make prep- 
arations for war; for neither the provinces of the north, nor 
Paraguay, nor the Banda Oriental, or Uruguay, were disposed 
to recognize the new authority of Buenos Aires. Also the 
intendente of Cordoba, J. Concha, denied obedience. The jun- 
ta dispatched 1200 soldiers under Brigadier-general Balcarce 
to Cordoba to treat the opposition leaders summarily. These, 
having been arrested, were shot, among whom was Liniers, 
a former hero and the predecessor of Viceroy Cisneros. The 
patriotic army then proceeded from Cordoba to Upper Peru, 
a distance of 450 miles, where the Peruvian General Goyen- 
eche committed never heard vexations to exact money from 
the people. Balcarce, at first repulsed, gained a splendid vic- 
tory November, 1810. General Neito who managed the af- 
fairs of Charcas at the time and a few other Spanish dignatar- 
ies were made prisoners and shot. The triumph of the pa- 
triotic cause seemed to be assured in this region. 

While Balcarce's division operated in the north, another 
troop of 800 patriots entered Paraguay, commanded by Man- 
uel Belgrano. After a strenuous march through forests and 
marshes Belgrano met the army of the Paraguayan governor 
Velasco, who had united 7000 men. Repulsed in a first en- 
counter, the Argentine commander had to fall back to the river 
Parana and a month and a half later he was forced to with- 
draw from Paraguayan territory. The third opposition to the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 331 



new Argentine government came from Montevideo where Elio 
who had been nominated viceroy by the regency of Cadiz, had 
declared war against the junta of Buenos Aires. The patriots 
of the Banda Oriental had risen against Elio, and Belgrano 
was sent to aid them. He, having increased his troop to more 
than 1000 men, routed the royalists at San Jose and obliged 
them to seek refuge in Montevideo (April, 1811). Two 
months later Elio was completely defeated before Montevideo, 
losing all this artillery and baggage ; but he retained his capital 
and navy. With his vessels Elio blockaded Buenos Aires with 
great loss to commerce and he demanded the surrender of the 
city. 

There having been many discordant opinions and disputes 
in the junta of Buenos Aires, the people ascribed the recent 
disorders and losses to the same and demanded a government 
exercised by three persons who might work in better harmony 
and with greater activity. The executive of three having been 
appointed, the triumvirate, in order to overcome existing dif- 
ficulties, agreed to recognize Paraguay as an independent state 
and also to relinquish control of the Banda Oriental, or Uru- 
guay, promising to withdraw their troops from that country, 
while Elio promised to raise the blockade of Buenos Aires. 
These regulations permitted the triumvirate to pay closer at- 
tention to the administration of the interior. They framed a 
provisional constitution for the new republic, which recognized 
freedom of the press, opportune rights of individuals, and 
prohibited slave-trade (May, 1812). The radicals of Buenos 
Aires, however, executed a revolting movement in which they 
were supported by the garrison, by deposing the executive and 
by appointing another triumvirate which was composed of 
men belonging to their party. The radical triumvirate called 
a general constituent congress, to be elected by general suf- 
frage. The congress which opened its sessions January 31st, 
1813, declared new-born slaves free, abolished the inquisition, 
suppressed punishment by torment and the titles of nobility. 



332 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



However, the revolutionary movements in Upper Peru 
and also in the Banda Oriental had begun anew and did not 
allow the military operations to cease. General Belgrano had 
organized an army of 1500 men and, marching north, had gone 
into camp near Jujuy. Goyeneche had taken the town of Co- 
chabamba which her patriots had heroically defended, where- 
upon he had perpetrated horrible revenges. Then he dis- 
patched General Pio Tristan at the head of 3000 men towards 
the south to oppose Belgrano. Near Tucuman they clashed. 
Though number, arms, and discipline were in favor of the roy- 
alists, Belgrano won a splendid victory September 24th, 1812, 
the enemy losing 450 killed, 700 prisoners, and a large quan- 
tity of arms and equipment. Belgrano followed Tristan who 
entrenched himself in the town of Salta, attacked, and obliged 
him to capitulate February 20th, 1813. The Argentine gen- 
eral was altogether too generous with his perfidious enemies, 
permitting the conquered to retire to Peru under the oath of 
not again taking up arms against the patriotic governments 
which were within the territory of the former La Plata vice- 
royship. The archbishop of Chuquisaca and the bishop of 
La Paz declared perfidiously that God did not consider the 
agreements binding which were made with insurgents and ab- 
solved from their oaths those who had capitulated. Goyene- 
che grew tired of a war that seemed interminable and left the 
seat of war, carrying away a great fortune. Later he went 
to Spain where Ferdinand VII. honored him with the title 
Count of Huaqui. The viceroy of Peru appointed Brigadier- 
general Pezuela to prosecute the war in Upper Peru. He 
came with 4000 men and surprised Belgrano in Vilcapujio, 
north of Potosi, inflicting great losses on the patriots. A 
month and a half later Pezuela overtook Belgrano in Ayouma 
and defeated his army completely; only 1000 Argentinos could 
be united after this second disaster. — While these events oc- 
curred in the north, Manuel Sarratea, the president of the sec- 
ond triumvirate, attacked Montevideo, as this town was the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 333 



center of royalistic conspiracies. The commander there was 
Brigadier-general Manuel Vigodet, successor to Elio. Colonel 
Rondeau, commanding the patriotic vanguard, routed Vigodet 
about three miles from Montevideo, leaving him only this place 
and the vessels in the river (December 31st, 1812). Vigodet 
then ordered his squadron to navigate the Parana and to pil- 
lage the river towns. A party of 250 Spaniards disembarked 
in front of a convent ; but Commander San Martin was there 
already with his regiment of mounted grenadiers and made the 
enemy reembark hurriedly, who left 50 dead, 14 prisoners, and 
2 guns behind. — Colonel Rondeau besieged Montevideo, but 
could not take the city, as it was strongly fortified and as it 
had received a re-enforcement of 2000 men from Spain. — 
As cases of emergency exact more vigor in governments, the 
Argentine congress united all the executive power in but one 
of the triumvirates, in /. A. Posadas, with the title Supreme 
Director of State (January 26th, 1814). To capture Monte- 
video a navy was necessary. The director bought and equipped 
four mercantile vessels and appointed the distinguished Irish- 
man Wm. Brown to command them. The Spaniards had 14 
war vessels and 18 armed merchantmen which Vigodet divided 
into two sections ; so Brown could attack them separately. At 
the conflux of the Parana and Uruguay, or where these rivers 
form the La Plata, there lies the island Martin Garcia which 
was fortified. Brown landed his men there, took the Span- 
ish batteries, and forced the one section of the Spanish fleet to 
ascend the Uruguay, while the other section stayed at Monte- 
video. Brown thereupon went to blockade this port and sup- 
ported the operations of the patriotic army of 5000 men which 
was besieging the city by land under Colonel Charles Alvear 
who had succeeded Rondeau in the command. While Brown 
captured three ships of the enemy, Alvear closed in upon Mon- 
tevideo and forced the royalists to capitulate June 22nd, 1814. 
They surrendered the city with 300 guns, 8000 rifles, and the 
vessels that were still in the river. Thus the Spanish power 



334 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



in the regions of the La Plata river was exterminated, never 
to revive there again. 

San Martin, a great military genius and hero of the South 
American revolution, was born in the town of Yapeyn of the 
Argentine territory of the Missions in the year 1778. His 




JOSE DE SAN MARTIN 

The Able Strategist 
t 1850 



mother was a Creole and his father a Spanish officer. When 
he was eight years of age, the father took the whole family to 
Spain where Joseph received his education and attended the 
best military schools also. At an early age he entered the 
Spanish army and served, as Carrera did, in the war against 
the French, gaining the medal of the victors of Bailen and ris- 
ing to the rank of a lieutenant-colonel. As Bolivar had become 
a member of Miranda's secret society, so had San Martin, and 
both were pledged to the work of transforming Spain's South 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 335 



American colonies into independent governments. Both Bol- 
ivar and San Martin imbibed their lives' ideals in Francisco de 
Miranda's society and both carried their instructor's ideas and 
ardent desires to a glorious issue, becoming the brightest stars 
in the* wars of the South American independence. Though 
Miranda's career was short, his thoughts lived on through 
them. San Martin resigned his position in the Spanish army 
early and returned to his native country to aid her in her ef- 
forts to secure independence. When he landed at Buenos 
Aires in March, 1812, he at once joined the Argentine army, 
was confirmed in his rank as lieutenant-colonel, and began to 
organize the famous regiment of mounted grenadiers. He saw 
the importance of quality and thorough preparation and select- 
ed young men of the finest physical type and the best moral 
characters. These he drilled and trained and subjected to the 
severest discipline, steadily eliminating those who did not 
measure up to his high and rigid standard. Out of this severe 
system and out of this select corps came generals and other 
officers for the armies and battles that followed ; for his fam- 
ous regiment of mounted grenadiers produced 19 generals and 
more than 200 officers of lower rank. With his regiment San 
Martin routed the Spaniards at San Lorenzo on the bank of 
the Parana. Soon after he was commissioned to replace noble 
Belgrano as commander of the Argentine army of Upper Peru 
which the Peruvian general had defeated in two big battles. 
He reorganized that army and also organized guerilla bands, 
but came to the conviction that the final object of independence 
would not be reached by fighting the Peruvian viceroy's armies 
in Upper Peru. He, therefore, renounced his position, pre- 
tending to be unwell, and asked the government for the poor 
and distant territory of Cuyo which lies under the shadows of 
the Andes. There in the town of Mendoza he laid his plans 
and labored at their realization ; his plans and labors we shall 
relate in the war of Chile's independence. — San Martin was 
not such a violent and brilliant general, as Bolivar, his rival in 



336 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



glory ; his disposition was rather cold and serene. He was 
an organizer, a reserved, astute, circumspect character who 
did not undertake anything without having previously taken it 
into close consideration. 

To recover the losses sustained by Belgrano in Upper Pe- 
ru, the Buenos Aires government made great exertions to or- 
ganize new bodies of troops and in San Martin's stead who 
had resigned Colonel Rondeau was appointed to the command 
of the army of Upper Peru. Rondeau followed Pezuela, the 
Spanish general, but the latter cut the Argentinos' retreat and 
inflicted a serious loss upon them in Sipi-Sipi November 28th, 
1815. Fortunately the guerillas of Salta could impede the 
pursuit of the royalists. The patriotic guerillas of Upper 
Peru, whom San Martin had organized, were in future, in- 
deed, able to hinder Peruvian troops from entering Argentine 
territory. 

The directorship of Buenos Aires changed hands in rapid 
succession. To satisfy outside provinces which for some time 
had been jealous of the capital, and to improve public senti- 
ments, it was thought wise to call a congress to a town out- 
side of Buenos Aires. So the representatives met in Tucuman 
and elected the distinguished soldier /. M. Pueyrredon su- 
preme director. At this stage of the Argentine revolutionary 
development prominent citizens saw the time come when the 
independence of their country should be declared. Manuel 
Belgrano in congress and San Martin in Mendoza demanded 
it persistently. Consequently the congress of Tucuman pro- 
claimed, July 9th, 1816, the full and entire independence of the 
country under the name "United Provinces of South America." 
A republican form of government was established and was not 
overthrown by outside enemies, as was done in the three coun- 
tries whose first revolutions we have already related. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



337 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE OF URUGUAY. 

1810 to 1828. 

Uruguay, or Banda Oriental, was a province of the La 
Plata viceroyship, and its capital, Montevideo, was a gathering 
place of royalists under Elio and Vigodet since the revolution- 
ary movements had begun in Buenos Aires in 1810. Jose Ar- 
tigas was a descendant of the first settlers of that city and 
became the revolutionary leader of his native country. Though 
at first he united with the Argentine revolutionists against the 
Spaniards, yet he cherished the idea of absolute independence 
already early in the movement, i. e. he as also many of his 
country men wanted the Banda Oriental to be independent of 
Argentina as well as of Spain. Therefore Artigas left the 
Buenos Aires army and aroused the Oriental provinces to re- 
volt. When the Argentinos had defeated the Spaniards and 
captured Montevideo, Artigas kept the peace for a while, but 
soon began a series of revolts again. He drove the Argen- 
tinos out of Montevideo, confided its management to bloody 
Ortuguez, and established his domination in the whole terri- 
tory. Organizing guerillas Artigas routed the Argentine troops 
that were sent against him. He even crossed the river Uru- 
guay and carried his incursions, pillages, and anarchy into the 
Argentine provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, proclaim- 
ing a federation and at the same time committing unheard 
depredations and violent deeds. 

Many people of Montevideo, exasperated by the cruel- 
ties and despotic rule of Artigas and Ortuguez, left the city 
and went to Rio de Janeiro where the Portuguese Court of 
Brazil resided to ask Don John, the regent, to deliver them 
from the despotism of Artigas. The regent made use of the 
occasion and sent an army of 10,000 Brazilians under General 
C. F. Lecor to establish order in the Banda Oriental. Artigas' 
guerillas were easily defeated in two engagements and Lecor 

22 



338 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



entered Montevideo victoriously. Artigas fled to Paraguay 
where Dr. Francia, the dictator of Asuncion, took care of him. 
He and his successor Lopez did their best for Artigas up to 
the end of his long life in 1850. His subaltern, F. Rivera, sur- 
rendered to the Brazilians and Lecor retained him in the com- 
mand of an Oriental regiment. The Brazilian occupation be- 
ing completed, John VI. declared the Banda Oriental incor- 
porated into his monarchy under the name Province Cisplatina 
(1821). When in the following year the independence of 
Brazil, i. e. her separation from Portugal, was declared, Uru- 
guay recognized the new Brazilian situation and sent deputies 
to the congress of Rio de Janeiro. 

The Argentine government had watched the conquest of 
Uruguay by the Brazilians with displeasure, and though the 
foreign method of government was not cruel, not even severe, 
the majority of the Oriental people preferred to belong to the 
Argentine Republic, because they were united with the Argen- 
tines by language, tradition, and common origin. — A number 
of Uruguayans had during the despotic rule of Artigas emi- 
grated to Buenos Aires and now planned to liberate their coun- 
try from Brazil. There were Colonel J. A. Lavalleja, M. 
Oribe and there were other Uruguayans, jj in all, who secret- 
ly left Buenos Aires and landed at the coast of the Banda Ori- 
ental April 19th, 1825. It was a great undertaking for this 
small number of men to liberate their fatherland in which there 
were 2000 Brazilian soldiers stationed at the time ; but they 
Were animated by the most ardent patriotism and under their 
flag solemnly swore to set the fatherland free or to die in the 
attempt. Next day a slight advantage favored their endeavor, 
for some volunteers increased their number. Commander 
Rivera also passed over to the revolters and before two months 
had passed, the Brazilians were shut up in the forts of Monte- 
video and the country. The insurgents organized a provision- 
al government which recognized the authority of the Argentine 
congress and called a provincial assembly. This having met, 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 339 



it proclaimed the separation from Brazil and the proclamation 
was soon sanctioned by the victory of Sarandi where the Bra- 
zilians lost 200 prisoners. The Argentine government which 
had secretly favored the Oriental insurgents, took, in harmony 
with those people, Uruguay under its protection and jurisdic- 
tion. This their act was equal to a declaration of war against 
Brazil, and the war broke out. Illustrious B. Rivadavia who 
had been elevated to the supreme command of the Argentine 
Republic, organized an army of 6000 men, which he placed 
under the command of General Alvear, and a navy which Ad- 
miral Brown was to command. The Argentinos fought the 
Brazilians successfully from the beginning on land and on sea 
and were victorious during the whole war which lasted several 
years. Emperor Pedro I. of Brazil re-enforced his army and 
replaced General Lecor by Marshal Barbacena; nevertheless 
the Brazilians were not more fortunate than before. Admiral 
Brown destroyed 19 Brazilian vessels in the Uruguay river, 
only three vessels escaping destruction. General Alvear de- 
feated Marshal Barbacena at Ituzaingo February 20th, 1827. 

Though the Argentinos were victors, they had in the two 
years' war almost exhausted their resources ; and as the Bra- 
zilians were not more favorably situated, both parties desired 
peace. The negotiations having been initiated, the Brazilian 
government demanded the return of Uruguay to its imperial 
domains. The Argentine people whose supreme director now 
was Manuel Dorrego, did not consent to the demand and the 
war was renewed and carried on with the same results as be- 
fore. However, through the intervention of England's dip- 
lomacy at last a treaty of peace and friendship was signed in 
Rio de Janeiro, which was, thirty-seven days later, ratified in 
Montevideo (October 4th, 1828). According to this treaty 
the Banda Oriental should neither belong to the Argentine Re- 
public nor to Brazil, but should constitute an independent 
state. Thus the present republic of Uruguay was born. 



340 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



INDEPENDENCE OF PARAGUAY. 
1810 to 1814. 

Paraguay was of all the Spanish colonies the last which 
really wanted liberty and self-government or the last which 
exerted herself to attain them, and this for two reasons — 
first, she being the oldest Spanish colony in the La Plata region, 
had for a century and a half been under the influence of the 
Jesuit missions, whereby the ignorant people had been stupi- 
fied ; and second, she being a long distance from the sea, had 
not enjoyed the benefits of commerce and intercourse with 
other nations. In 1810 the intelligent and kind Spanish colo- 
nel B. Velasco governed the colony. As the Paraguayans 
were then a part of the La Plata viceroyship, they refused to 
recognize the revolutionary junta of Buenos Aires and organ- 
ized an army of 7000 men for their defense. The Argentine 
general M. Belgrano was at the head of 800 soldiers repulsed 
in two encounters, forced to capitulate in Tacuari and to with- 
draw from the country. 

Soon after, the talk in Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, 
was about a change of government and about independence 
from Spain. In the last campaign Governor Velasco had lost 
much of his prestige and F. Yegros and other military leaders 
had gained it. One night a revolutionary complot was init- 
iated in Asuncion in favor of uniting with Buenos Aires. In 
accord with the officers the conspirators occupied the quarters, 
deposed Velasco, and confided the government to a junta 
which was composed of F. Yegros, J. Caballero, and Dr. G. R. 
Francia ; the latter became the dominant spirit. 

Dr. Francia, a Paraguayan lawyer, who had studied in 
the Argentine university of Cordoba, was then 53 years old.. 
His education was deficient, but he enjoyed a good reputation; 
for he was one of the few Paraguayans who had any idea of 
governmental affairs. Dr. Francia wished that Paraguay 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 341 

neither obey the Spaniards nor the Argentinos and readily 
changed his country's relations. He, consequently, ordered to 
apprehend ex-Governor Velasco and other royalists and also 
the principal leaders who favored a union with Argentina. 
Thereupon he directed a note to the revolutionary junta of 
Buenos Aires, in which he declared that Paraguay would unite 
with the Argentine provinces only as a part of a confederation 
(1811). In Dr. Francia's government we find peculiarities 
that are odd and pedantic. From Roman history he knew that 
a government of two consuls had formerly existed in the old 
Roman republic and so he wished to establish a similar govern- 
ment in Paraguay. A congress of representatives which met 
in Asuncion and received its instructions from Francia, re- 
solved that the republic be governed by two consuls who 
should be elected annually. Dr. Francia and Commander Ye- 
gros were the first consuls. Imitating Rome further, two 
curule chairs were constructed and the names of Ceasar and 
Pompey were engraved on them (1813) ; Dr. Francia occu- 
pied the first chair and Sr. Yegros the second. As there also 
had been dictators in Rome who had exercised absolute power, 
Dr. Francia proposed that the same become customary in Par- 
aguay. He, consequently, had himself appointed by congress 
as the only and absolute ruler and accepted that title May, 
1814. 

Thus Paraguay liberated herself from Spanish domina- 
tion and seperated from Buenos Aires without war; but she 
remained isolated and was submitted for many years to the 
dreary, gloomy, and bloody despotism of Dr. Francia and of 
the two Lopez who succeeded him, not enjoying republican 
liberty. 



342 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



INDEPENDENCE OF CHILE. 
1817 to 1826. 

We left Chile in the control of the Spaniards in 1817 and 
her people looking anxiously towards Mendoza. In this Ar- 
gentine town, San Martin was then pondering over a great 
project. He thought as long as the viceroy of Peru could but 
renew the Spanish armies who in Upper Peru fought the Ar- 
gentine patriots, the latter could not make their independence 
absolutely sure, the war would rather become interminable in 
that section. To bring it to a close it would be necessary to 
shut up the fountain of royalist resources by attacking the 
viceroy in his own house. And it was impracticable to do that 
by fighting one's way through Upper Peru, across the Andes 
to Lima. The better plan seemed to be to organize an army 
in Mendoza, to cross the Andes to the neighboring state of 
Chile, and to help the patriots of that country drive the Span- 
iards out. This was the first part of San Martin's project. 
Chile being free, San Martin thought he could count upon the 
Chilean patriots to re-enforce his army, to organize a squadron 
that might control the Pacific and carry his troops to the Peru- 
vian ports. Then the viceroy would find himself in the nec- 
essity to recall his army from Upper Peru for his own defense, 
and his countrymen, the Argentinos, would be free from ene- 
mies in Upper Peru. After the viceroy's troops were defeat- 
ed in Peru the independence of half the continent would be 
assured. This was the second part of the vast and bold pro- 
ject of San Martin. It had the appearance of madness; how- 
ever, it was realized, section after section, almost without 
alterations. 

THE CHILEAN EMIGRANTS IN MENDOZA. 

San Martin had not been long in Mendoza when the Chil- 
enos who had fled after the disaster of Rancagua, arrived 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 343 



there. Near the city he had opened a camp and there he la- 
bored day and night at the organization of an army. The 
Chilean emigrants became a considerable re-enforcement, San 
Martin accepting them with pleasure and the majority enter- 
ing his army. He showed O'Higgins especially warm sympa- 
thy, made him his subaltern, and the two labored together. 
But Carrera exhibited a haughty disposition, was proud even 
in misfortune, and not inclined to serve in a second capacity. 
San Martin obliged him to leave for Buenos Aires, where the 
three Carrera brothers and their adherents gathered. We shall 
see how they ended. 

GUERILLAS IN CHILE. 

Among the Chilean emigrants in Mendoza the young law- 
yer M. Rodriguez distinguished himself through his restless 
and enthusiastic disposition. In accord with San Martin, 
Rodriguez returned to Chile secretly and organized mountain- 
eers for guerilla purposes, who overran the country between 
Santiago and the river Maule. Followed by a number of 
countrymen he seemed to be everywhere, appearing as quickly 
in one place as in another. The Spanish governor Marco del 
Pont put a price on his head, and pursuers set out to catch 
him. Rodriguez boldly defied his enemies ; disguised at times 
he would be in their very midst. One day he entered Melipil- 
la, divided the provisions of the repository among his follow- 
ers, and left. He invested with his guerillas the whole coun- 
try between Santiago and Talca. — Marco stationed numerous 
troops in various places to watch the mountain passes whereby 
his army was scattered over a very long frontage. This he did 
because there was great doubt about the pass through which 
San Martin's army would come to invade Chile; and this 
doubt was fostered by San Martin himself. The shrewd Ar- 
gentine general, by his complex spy system, had made the 
enemy believe that the invasion would come from the southern 
passes; his real intentions he had kept from friends and ene- 



344 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



mies alike. For instance on the eastern slopes of the Andes, 
commanding the southern passes, lived the treacherous Pehu- 
enche Indians. San Martin asked them for the permission to 
lead an army through their country which they granted, and 
he was satisfied that the Indians, with their usual perfidy, 
would inform Marco of this project. He also took care that 
their information was confirmed by Marco's agents in Men- 
doza who sent him dispatches to the same purport. Marco, 
harassed by the alarming news, adopted, most ill-conceived 
measures by cutting trenches in the southern passes, strength- 
ening the guards of all the passes and scattering his troops all 
along the mountain slopes, over a distance of about 1300 miles. 
To accomplish this he raised arbitrary contributions, increas- 
ing the discontent of the people so that all classes longed for 
the appearance of San Martin and got ready to help him as 
best they might be able. 

In the encampment of Mendoza all hands worked for the 
same purpose, all details were directed by the same mind, by 
the far-seeing intelligence of San Martin. The forges blazed 
day and night ; the arsenals turned out cartridges by the hun- 
dred thousands. Fray Beltram made special carriages for the 
artillery, adapted to the mountain passes ; the guns themselves 
were to be carried on the backs of mules. Slings were made 
to carry them over dangerous places and sleds of raw hide in 
which they might be hauled up by men where the gradients 
were too steep for the mules. Large provisions of food, 
called charquican, were prepared. The soldiers made for 
themselves sandals of raw hides, called tamangos. Thirty 
thousand horse-shoes were manufactured, which were a great 
innovation, as the Argentinos were not accustomed to shoe 
their horses ; without them the hoofs of the cavalry horses 
would have been worn down in the transit over the stony 
passes. Four cables, each 170 feet long, and two anchors 
formed a portable bridge. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 345 



PASSAGE OF THE ANDES BY SAN MARTIN'S 
LIBERATING ARMY. 

JANUARY 24TH TO FEBRUARY 8TH, 1817. 

"What spoils my sleep is not the strength of the enemy, 
but how to pass those immense mountains," said San Martin, 
as from Mendoza he gazed upon the snow-clad summits of the 
Andes, which as a mighty barrier separate the wide plains of 
the Argentine pampas from Chile's smiling valleys. This 
great Cordillera is in its center composed of three or four 
ranges of conical and sharply defined peaks which are crowned 
with perpetual snow. This section of the Andes is doubtless 
the most rugged and steep; for here the mighty Aconcagua, 
the mountain king of South America, rises to a height of 
23,080 feet above the Pacific and other peaks to a height of 
21,000 feet. At their feet lie deep valleys from which 
perpendicular precipices rise up to the clouds. The mighty 
condors wheeling in the airy circles, are at those dizzy 
heights the only living beings to be seen. There are also 
lakes fed by torrents of melted snow which, pouring down 
the mountain sides into these valleys, find at times no exit, 
their paths being closed by immense heaps of debris hurled 
from the lofty summits by force of ice and water. These 
immense groups of mountains are traversed by rugged defiles. 
Narrow paths, the result of volcanic action, wind along the 
edges of precipices, while below roar the mountain streams 
carrying great rocks in their course. Here nature covers her- 
self with no other ornaments than the cactus, mosses, and 
thorny plants ; everywhere are seen traces of the world in 
embryo, as it emerged from chaos in the process of creation. 

The great Cordillera can only be crossed by certain passes. 
Those which have connection with our history are two in the 
center, in front of Mendoza and San Juan ; two in the north, 
leading from Argentina to Coquimbo and Copiapo ; and two 
in the south, giving access to the valleys of Talca, to the plain 



346 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of Maipo, and to the capital of Chile. These passes, from 
9000 to 12,000 feet above sea level, are covered with snow in 
the larger part of the year and are passable only in the height 
of summer. Until San Martin's liberating army crossed, they 
had been traversed only by small detachments of soldiery or 
by troops of mules; the paths being in many places so nar- 
row as only to give room for one mounted man at a time. The 
passage of a numerous army with guns and baggage was held 
to be impossible and had never been thought of until the feat 
was accomplished by San Martin. Food for men and forage 
for horses, mules, and oxen had to be carried with them. And 
it was necessary to reach the Chilean side in force sufficient 
to overcome a watchful enemy; to concentrate the different 
columns upon the enemy's weak point; and to make all the 
preparations in secret, so that the army might rush like a 
thunderbolt from the western mountain slopes and give battle 
on the open plain. 

Everything was ready in Mendoza. The army consisted 
of 3000 infantry in four battalions, led by Alvarado, Cramer, 
Conde, and Las Heras ; of 5 squadrons of the mounted gren- 
adiers, 700 sabers, led by Zapiola, Melian, Ramallo, Escalada, 
and Necochea; and of 250 artillery, with ten 6-pounders, two 
howitzers, and nine 4-pounder mountain-guns, under com- 
mand of La Plaza. 1200 mounted negro militia from Cuyo, 
besides muleteers and artisans accompanied the army. The 
army was arranged in three divisions, each entirely indepen- 
dent of the others. The vanguard under Soler and the reserve 
under O'Higgins marched by one of the center passes. Las 
Heras with the artillery marched by another center pass, 
which was the only one practicable for guns and ammunition. 
All the food for fifteen days they took with them, also 600 
bullocks for slaughter. As flankers to the main army a de- 
tachment of militia and Chilean emigrants left San Juan under 
Cabot by the northern passes, marching upon Coquimbo and 
Copiapo. To the south another detachment, composed of 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 347 



mounted infantry, grenadiers, and Chilenos marched under 
Captain Freire, in support of the Chilean guerillas. Both the 
main body and the detachments had orders to debouch on 
Chilean territory from February 6th to 8th ; it was in the year 
1817. As the leading files of the army entered the passes, 
San Martin wrote January 24th to his friend Godoy Cruz : 
"This afternoon I leave to join the army. God grant me suc- 
cess in this great enterprise." The road on which the main 
division traveled was very difficult ; and on account of the 
great elevation and its nearness to the eternal snows of the 
higher peaks, the cold was very intense. It freezes hard there 
every night, even in midsummer. The rarifaction of the air 
caused many of the men to drop from the ranks. 

It was only on the eve of the departure that San Martin 
had explained his plan in its entirety to his generals. The 
plain of Chacabuco in Chile was the objective point ; there 
the army divisions were to concentrate to beat the principal 
force of the enemy and to seize the capital. 

Cabot had left San Juan January 12th and on February 
8th he issued from the northern passes. The whole province 
of Coquimbo rose in arms to welcome him. Captain Ceballos, 
detached by him, routed a royalist force of 100 men on the 
plains of Salada, capturing 2 small guns and 40 prisoners. 
By the 12th Cabot was master of the entire province. On the 
same day Davila took the city of Copiapo and consequently 
the whole north of Chile was in the power of the patriots. 

Captain Freire, having issued from a southern pass, had 
routed the Spaniards in a skirmish at the southern extreme 
of the line of operation and had occupied the city of Talca on 
the same 12th of February. He was at once joined by the 
Chilean guerillas. 

Marco had dispatched 1000 men under Colonel Atero to 
reconnoiter the pass on which Las Heras with the artillery 
was advancing. On January 24th the advanced posts of Las 
Heras were attacked by the enemy at Pichueta, on the eastern 




348 Route of San Martin's Passage of the Andes and Liberating Campaign 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 349 



slope of the Cordillera. A re-enforcement under Major Mar- 
tinez after two hours' fighting drove the royalists across the 
summit. San Martin, on hearing of this, at once dispatched 
Major Arcos with 200 men to seize the pass of Achupallas. 
Arcos found the guard there strongly re-enforced, but attacked 
at once and the day was decided by Lieutenant John Ovalle 
of the mounted grenadiers, who led there the first of those 
desperate charges of cavalry for which he was afterwards so 
renowned. Early in the morning of February 2nd Las Heras 
crossed the summit of the Cordillera. On the 4th an ad- 
vanced post of the royalists was, at Guardia Vieja, attacked 
by Major Martinez and carried at the point of the bayonet. 
Thereupon Las Heras, in obedience to express orders from 
San Martin, retired upon his reserve. Atero, deceived by the 
countermarch of Las Heras in the idea that he was in full 
retreat, left the pass open, and without further trouble Las 
Heras debouched on the plain on the 8th and occupied Santa 
Rosa. . 

Also in other preliminary fights the patriots were success- 
ful. The royalist fugitives reported that the enemy were tall 
men, armedwith very long swords, and that their charges no 
^avair^Tm Chile could resist. On the 8th the divisions en- 
camped in the valley of Putaendo and were enthusiastically 
welcomed by the inhabitants. While the whole army crossed 
the river Acongagua by a bridge, a squadron of grenadiers 
under Melian advanced to the hill of Chacabuco and was there 
met by advanced parties of the column of Las Heras. Bel- 
tram had lost 6000 mules out of 10,000 and two-thirds of his 
horses ; but he had brought all his guns with him. 

Thus the preliminary operations were crowned with suc- 
cess. A strategic combination of movements over a frontage 
of 1300 miles was completed in every particular on the day 
prefixed by the author of the plan. San Martin had reason 
to be proud of the exploit ; but neither then nor at any later 
date was he ever known to boast of it; he had at that time 



350 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



much else to think of. His cavalry horses were for the most 
part foundered by the passage of the rugged defiles ; and he 
had no time to lose, if he was to fight a decisive battle on the 
15th, as he had promised. The judgment of posterity is 
unaminous in respect to the importance of the passage of the 
Andes by San Martin, not only as a great military feat, but 
also for the influence it had upon the final result of the strug- 
gle for emancipation. Spanish historians speak of it as the 
turning point of the contest between Spain and her colonies. 
In German military schools it is cited as an example of the im- 
portance of discipline in an army and of the value of foresight 
and attention to details on the part of a general. 

The passage of the Andes by San Martin was a feat re- 
quiring greater strategy and skill than the passage of the Alps 
by Hannibal and by Napoleon. It was unequaled, until Boli- 
var repeated the exploit two years later on the equator. If 
compared with the two former it is seen to be a much greater 
achievement than either of them from its effects upon the des- 
tinies of the human race. In place of vengeance, greed, or 
ambition, San Martin was animated by the hope of giving 
liberty and independence to a new world. The passage of the 
Andes by San Martin resulted in Maipo; the passage of the 
Andes by Bolivar resulted in Boyaca, two decisive victories 
which liberated entire nations from the slavery of foreign des- 
potism. The passages of the Alps by Hannibal and Napoleon 
resulted only in the sterile victories of Trebia and of Marengo. 
We also see that the armies who crossed the Andes were vic- 
torious in the following battles as well as those who had trav- 
ersed the Alps. Men who climb mountains, defeat their ene- 
mies. 

THE BATTLE OF CHACABUCO, FEBRUARY I2TH, 1817. 

From the town of San Felipe, San Martin sent a trusty 
spy to Santiago with instruction to bring him information of 
the movements of the enemy, on the third day; February 10th 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 351 



all the army was united on the open plain at the foot of the 
slope of Chacabuco. The engineers, protected by skirmishers, 
reconnoitered the roads and passes leading across the Sierra. 
On the 11th already the spy returned, bringing answers to San 
Martin from his agents in the capital and copies of the secret 
orders of Marco. The spy had visited the barracks of the 
royalist troops and had counted those on the march to Cha- 
cabuco. San Martin then summoned a council of war and 
informed his officers that he had determined to advance with- 
out waiting for the rest of the artillery and to fight the decisive 
battle before the enemy had time to concentrate his forces. 
The army was divided into two columns; — that of the right 
consisted of 2100 men with seven light guns and was under 
Soler, and that of the left counted 1500 men with two guns 
and was commanded by O'Higgins. The latter was to engage 
the attention of the enemy in front without attacking the po- 
sition ; while Soler should march upon his left flank and rear, 
when a general advance would decide the day. 

Marco appointed Colonel Maroto of the Talavera reg- 
iment commander of the army which was assembled at Chaca- 
bucoJ Maroto who reached the plain on the evening of the 
11th/ and made a farmhouse his headquarters, found under 
his command 1500 infantry, 500 cavalry, and five guns, a force 
far inferior in number to that of the invaders; but that force 
was the flower of the Spanish army. That evening he 
strengthened an outpost on the summit of the crest, purposing 
to occupy the height with his whole force in the morning. 

At two in the morning of February 12th, under a bright 
moon, the army of the Andes commenced their advance, the 
infantry leaving their knapsacks behind. Flanking parties 
from Soler's division were the first to meet the enemy, but had 
barely exchanged a few shots when the position was attacked 
by O'Higgins, who drove this advanced guard before him over 
the summit. The royalists retreated in good order upon the 
main body which had advanced three miles up the valley at 



352 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



dawn of day. Maroto, believing that the whole patriot force 
was in pursuit of his vanguard, withdrew his army across the 
valley which was intersected by a muddy stream, and took a 
strong position on the opposite slope. Zapiola, with three 
squadrons of the grenadiers, harassed the retreat of the roya- 
list vanguard and succeeded in preventing the enemy from oc- 
cupying two hills at the mouth of the pass. 

At 11 A. M. O'Higgins debouched from the pass and drew 
up his infantry in line on the open ground under the enemy's 
fire, while Soler advanced on another road to the enemy's left. 
O'Higgins afterwards said as his blood was boiling to be at 
them , he forgot San Martin's positive order to wait for Soler 
before attacking; so he gave the word to charge. His men 
advanced with alacrity, but were soon entangled in the muddy 
stream which they in vain tried to cross under the enemy's fire, 
and finally they retreated in disorder to the mouth of the pass. 
San Martin, sitting on his war-horse and seeing from the 
heights above the repulse of his lieutenant, at once sent off his 
aide-de-camp Condarco to hasten the march of Soler. This is 
the incident in his life which is commemorated in the equestrian 
statue which now graces the plaza San Martin in Buenos 
Aires. He then galloped down the slope and joined O'Hig- 
gins. As he reached the lower grounds he saw an extraordin- 
ary movement in the ranks of the enemy and then descried the 
head of Soler's column advancing rapidly on his flank. 

O'Higgins again advanced, while the grenadiers under 
Zapiola charged the center of the enemy and sabred his artil- 
lery men at their guns ; the position was carried by the bayo- 
net. The royalist infantry then formed a square on their cen- 
ter. At the same time Colonel Alvarado, with the vanguard 
of the right wing, captured the hill on the enemy's left, while 
Necochea and Escalada charged the cavalry in the rear. The 
victors then fell simultaneously upon the square which was 
speedily broken. Some of the fugitives made for the farm- 
house in the rear, but found their retreat cut off by Soler and 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 353 



were forced to surrender at discretion. Others tried to es- 
cape by the valley, but fell there under the sabers of the gren- 
adiers. 

The royalists lost in this action 500 killed, 600 prisoners, 
all their artillery, one standard, and two flags; while the loss 
of the patriots was 12 killed and 120 wounded. But the moral 
effects of the victory were still greater; for the disaster of 
Chacabuco spread panic among the adherents of the royal 
cause all over Chile. 

Marco only thought of his own safety and, fleeing to Val- 
paraiso, left the capital in the hands of the populace. On the 
13th the patriot army was in full march upon Santiago. Ne- 
cochea, with his squadron of grenadiers, was sent in advance 
to maintain order in the city ; next day the army entered amid 
the enthusiastic plaudits of the inhabitants. Maroto and other 
fugitives reached Valparaiso and at once embarked ; the rest 
were made prisoners among whom was Marco himself who 
had not even energy enough for a rapid flight. San Martin 
received the late governor-general with great affability. A 
junta of Santiago citizens appointed San Martin supreme di- 
rector of Chile which position he, however, refused to accept 
on account of the second part of his continental plan. In his 
stead Bernhard O'Higgins was elected with ample powers for 
an indefinite term. The first act of the new government was 
to send a vessel to the island of Juan Fernandez to bring the 
patriots home who had been kept there as prisoners. Then 
the reprisals against the royalists began — the two butchers 
San Bruno and Villalobos, assassins of prisoners in jail, were 
shot in the center of the plaza; the new archbishop, J. S. 
Rodriguez, a decided enemy of the patriots, was exiled and 
sent to Mendoza ; the properties of the royalist fugitives were 
confiscated, while those who stayed in Chile had to deliver 
the sum of 400,000 pesos in a few days to supply the needs of 
the new government and had to submit to a vigorous vigilance. 



23 



354 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Simultaneously with these measures O'Higgins recruited new 
Chilean troops to pursue the war in the south. 

CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH OF CHILE, 1817. 

While the royalists, defeated at Chacabuco, fled towards 
Peru, a valient and experienced Spanish commander, Colonel 
J. Ordonyez, opposed in the south with obstinate resistance. 
O'Higgins dispatched against him a division at the command 
of the Argentine colonel J. G. Las Heras who defeated Or- 
donyez and forced him to shut himself up in the port of Tal- 
cahuano. There he received a re-enforcement of 1600 men, 
largely fugitives of Chacabuco whom the viceroy had sent 
back from Peru. Now the Spanish commander attacked Las 
Heras near Concepcion, but was routed. Immediately after- 
wards O'Higgins arrived with more troops and closed in upon 
Ordonyez on the peninusla of Talcahuano. The royalists had 
fortified the narrow isthmus with trenches, palisades, and sev- 
enty guns ; and with their vessels they dominated the sea. All 
efforts of O'Higgins during six months to dislodge the enemy, 
were fruitless. Then General Brayer, a Frenchman, who had 
been a commander in the Napoleonic wars, advised to make an 
assault and laid the plan which O'Higgins accepted. But in 
spite of their impetuous boldness the patriots were repulsed, 
leaving the battleground strewn with dead and wounded (De- 
cember 6th). 

SECOND INVASION OF OSORIO, l8l8. 

The new year opened as bad for the patriots as the old 
had closed. M. Osorio, victor of Rancagua, was again sent 
by the new viceroy of Peru, Pezuela, and having arrived at 
Talcahuano with 3400 veteran soldiers united his forces with 
those of Ordonyez. Fortunately San Martin who had been to 
Buenos Aires, had returned and he anticipated that Osorio 
would bring his troops by sea farther north to march against 
Santiago. Consequently he advised O'Higgins to come to- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 355 



wards the north, while he himself intended to raise an army 
in Las Tablas, near Valparaiso. While he was on his return 
from the south O'Higgins launched a challenge at the royalist 
leader in the form of a declaration of independence. That 
absolute independence was the wish of the people they had 
clearly demonstrated in a public manifestation and consequent- 
ly O'Higgins solemnly proclaimed Chile's independence. Near 
San Fernando O'Higgins and San Martin united about 7000 
soldiers. Osorio crossed the river Maule with 5000, but soon 
had to retreat before superior forces and to close himself up 
in Talca. Since Osorio's retreat was cut off by the Maule 
his situation was difficult and quite equal to Gainza's in 1814. 
The royalists were saved by a surprise which had been de- 
vised and was ably directed by Ordonyez. It was the 9th day 
of March and San Martin's birthday when after nightfall the 
patriot army executed a change of position at Cancha Rayada, 
that Ordonyez came out of Talca to attack it. In the darkness 
and confusion the patriots opened fire upon one another. One 
ball wounded O'Higgins' arm, another killed his horse. This 
incident was not a battle ; it was a dispersion of the patriot 
army. Only Las Heras could retreat in order and arrived at 
San Fernando with 3000 men; there San Martin and O'Hig- 
gins undertook the reorganization. Presently 5000 men await- 
ed the royalists in the camp of Maipo, ten miles southeast of 
the capital. 

VICTORY OF MAIPO, APRIL 5TH, l8l8. 

We purposely relate the closing battles, the battles of far 
reaching importance, somewhat in detail. Osorio advanced cau- 
tiously with his army, 5,500 strong, crossing several streams, 
and April 3d moved to the farmhouse of Espejo on the north 
bank of the river Maipo where he made his headquarters. The 
two armies which were to engage in a deadly struggle for the 
possession of Chile, now encamped in close proximity. Their 
forces were about equal. 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 357 



The scene of the decisive battle of April 5th, 1818, is a 
plain bounded on the east by the river Mapocho which flows 
through the city of Santiago, on the north by a range of hills 
which separate it from the valley of Aconcagua, and on the 
south by the river Maipo which gives the plain its name. Ris- 
ing ground extends through the plain, intervened by low 
stretches. The opposing armies were encamped on such dif- 
ferent elevations with low land, varying from 300 to 1250 
yards, between them. The position held by the patriot army 
commanded the three roads that lead from the Maipo to the 
capital and the road to Valparaiso. For the further security 
of the capital San Martin had entrenched the city and gar- 
risoned it with 1000 militiamen and one battalion of infantry 
under command of O'Higgins whose wound, received in the 
nightly surprise of Cancha Rayada, precluded him from serv- 
ice in the field. In spite of these precautions the patriots of 
Santiago were making every preparation for another flight in 
case of defeat and when the guns roared and the battle raged 
they spent the hours in mortal anxiety. — The army was in 
three divisions — the first under Las Heras on the right, the 
second under Alvarado on the left, and a reserve in a second 
line under Quintana. Balcarce was in general command of 
the infantry, San Martin kept the cavalry and the reserve un- 
der his own orders. He issued the most precise orders for the 
regulations of the troops in action, especially enjoining upon 
every corps, whether cavalry or infantry, never to await a 
charge, but when fifty paces distant they should rush forward 
with saber or bayonet. 

Early in the morning of the 5th San Martin, attended by 
a small escort, rode to the edge of the elevation to see whether 
the foe occupied the road to Valparaiso in case of a reverse. 
As he saw them occupy the high ground in front of him with 
their left only extending to the road, he exclaimed: "What 
brutes these Spaniards are! Osorio is a greater fool than I 
thought him to be. I take the sun for witness that the day is 



358 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ours." And the sun, looking down from a cloudless sky, was 
a witness of that day's heroic deeds of patriotism. — At half- 
past ten the patriot army advanced from its camp. On reach- 
ing the edge of the elevation the army was drawn up in order 
of battle, four heavy guns in the center, the light pieces and 
the cavalry on the wings, and the reserve two hundred yards 
in the rear. 

The first move of the royalist general was to detach Primo 
de Rivera with eight companies of infantry and four guns to 
occupy a detached hill on his left threatening the patriots' 
right, taking them in flank if they crossed the low ground and 
securing, as he thought, the road to Valparaiso, Morgado with 
some cavalry keeping up the connection with the main body. 
The crest of the elevation was occupied by the infantry in two 
divisions with four guns each, the rest of the cavalry being 
stationed on the extreme right. Both armies were in such 
excellent positions that neither could attack except at a dis- 
advantage. 

San Martin, uncertain of the whereabouts of the enemy's 
artillery, was the first to open fire with his four heavy guns 
from the center. The reply gave him the information he re- 
quired and he at once ordered the two divisions to attack the 
enemy. Las Heras advanced resolutely with the 11th bat- 
talion, under the protection of the four guns on the hill, to 
another hill to the right of Primo de Rivera, while the gren- 
adiers under Escalada, Medina, and Zapiola drove Morgado 
and his horsemen in confusion from the field. Rivera was 
thus cut off from Osorio's main body. At the same time the 
left wing crossed the lowlands and, ascending the opposite 
slope, reached the high ground without seeing an enemy, but 
were then vigorously charged by the bulk of the royalist in- 
fantry under Ordonyez and Moria and driven back with heavy 
losses. But the royalists, pursuing them down the slope, were 
in their turn forced to retire by a withering fire from the 
Chilean guns under Borgonyo which had remained on the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



359 



crest. San Martin now sent orders to Quintana to advance at 
once with the reserve in support of the left wing by an oblique 
movement across the low grounds so as to fall upon the flank 
of the Spanish infantry. On his way Quintana was joined 
by three battalions of those that had been driven back. They 
fell with great impetuosity upon the royalists, who, however, 
held their ground most tenaciously. Meanwhile Freyre, with 
the Chilean cavalry, had charged and put to flight the royalist 
calvary on the right and now came back to fall upon the flank 
of their infantry. Alvarado, having rallied his broken divi- 
sion, came with Borgonyo and his eight guns to the assistance 
of Quintana. The royalists then gave way and abandoned all 
their positions. After Osorio had sent orders to Rivera to 
withdraw from his advanced position he fled, leaving Ordonyez 
in command who at once commenced to retreat upon the farm 
house of Espejo which was accomplished in excellent order. 
At this moment O'Higgins appeared upon the field, and meet- 
ing San Martin, greeted him as the saviour of Chile. But it 
was already five o'clock and the battle not yet entirely won, 
Ordonyez, though with heavy loss, had made his retreat to the 
farm-house good where he made the most active preparation 
for defense. 

Las Heras, who was in pursuit of the enemy's left wing, 
was the first commander to arrive at the house, but found sev- 
eral detached corps there before him. He immediately or- 
dered the occupation of the high grounds around the farm- 
house which commanded the position; but Balcarce coming 
up ordered an immediate attack upon the road. Colonel 
Thompson with a battalion of Chilean light infantry led the 
assault, but was beaten back with grape and musketry, losing 
250 killed and having all his officers wounded. Borgonyo and 
Blanco Encalada then opened fire with seventeen guns from 
the high ground and soon drove the enemy from his outer de- 
fenses into the houses and vineyards. Then the 11th battal- 
ion, supported by pickets of the 7th and 8th, broke their way 



360 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



through the mud walls and took the buildings by assault. The 
carnage that ensued was frightful and it went on until Las He- 
ras succeeded in putting a stop to it. Ordonyez and all his 
principal officers, with the exception of Rodil who escaped, 
gave up their swords to Las Heras. The victory was complete. 
This was the hardest fought battle in all the war of independ- 
ence. The royalists lost 1000 killed, 2200 prisoners, one gen- 
eral, 11 colonels, 150 officers, 12 guns, 4 flags, and a large quan- 
tity of small armes, ammunition, and baggage. The patriots 
lost more than 1000 killed and wounded ; the greatest suffer- 
ers were the freed Negroes of Cuyo, San Martin's Argentine 
captaincy, of whom more than half remained upon the field. 

Great tactical skill was displayed by San Martin in this 
battle. The victory was achieved by the opportune attack of 
the reserve upon the enemy's weakest flank ; it was the oblique 
movement. This movement had been invented by the Greek 
general Epaminondas, of antiquity. San Martin, like this 
general, won only two great battles and he won them by the 
oblique movement. The importance of the victory of Maipo 
was only equaled by that of Boyaca and that of Ayacucho, both 
of which were won later, and without Maipo neither the one 
nor the other would have been fought. Maipo crushed the 
spirit of the Spanish army in America and of all adherents to 
the cause of royalty from Mexico to Patagonia, and set the 
zeal forever upon Chile's independence. 

San Martin had witnessed the flight of Osorio and though 
he sent O'Brien after him with a party of cavalry, the fugitive 
escaped to the coast, leaving his carriage with all his corre- 
spondence in the hands of his pursuers. He reached Talca- 
huano with 14 men April 14th and was there joined by 600 
fugitives. As San Martin left off pursuing him, Osorio made 
use of this respite to strengthen himself in Talcahuano and 
Concepcion, and, by calling in outlying detachments, succeeded 
in collecting 1200 men by the middle of May. Viceroy Pezue- 
la of Peru comprehended the gravity of the disaster of Maipo, 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 361 



but was unable to replenish Osorio with re-enforcement, see- 
ing it necessary for himself to make preparation against inva- 
sions. Thus Osorio was in the sore plight of sustaining him- 
self in Chile as best he could. May 21st he sent two detach- 
ments across the Nuble, one of which surprised the town of 
Parrol. Zapiola, who had been dispatched by San Martin 
with 250 grenadiers to maintain order in the south, where 
guerillas began to commit depredations, sent off Captain Caja- 
ravilla with 200 horse to retake Parrol, which task he gallant- 
ly accomplished, capturing 70 prisoners. Lieutenant Rodri- 
guez cut the other detachment to pieces at Chirihue. This put 
a stop to the royalists' efforts at that time. — Osorio, fearing 
that he would be attacked in spring by the united patriot army, 
resolved to evacuate Talcahuano and to return to Peru. Con- 
sequently he left Colonel Sanchez in command of the royalists 
and, after dismantling the fortifications, sailed for Callao with 
35 heavy guns, a great quantity of war material, and 700 Span- 
ish troops, — all that remained of the strong re-enforcements 
he had brought with him. 

CAPTURE OF THE MARIA ISABEL. 

However, great difficulties had still to be overcome. We 
shall refer to two only — the Spaniards had to be expelled 
from the south of Chile, and a fleet had to be purchased and 
equipped to control the Pacific that was still under the sway 
of the Peruvian viceroy's vessels. Therefore, the Chilean gov- 
ernment confiscated the properties of fugitive royalists and 
asked the people for contributions and loans to buy vessels 
from England and the United States, a mountain of difficulties 
thus presenting itself. Finally, after all difficulties had been 
surmounted, the Chilean government was so fortunate as to 
secure five vessels, to equip them with 143 guns and man them 
with 1,100 marines. About that time it was learned that Fer- 
dinand VII., to fight the Chilenos, had dispatched an expedi- 
tion of 2000 soldiers in nine transport vessels which were pro- 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



tected by the war vessel Maria Isabel carrying 40 guns. 
Against this expedition the small Chilean squadron sailed from 
Valparaiso under M. Blanco Encalada, an Argentino, who 
had served in the Spanish marine. Among the foreigners who 
accompanied him the North American Chas. Wooster distin- 
guished himself. The Maria Isabel had scarcely entered the 
Talcahuano harbor, when it was attacked by the patriot squad- 
ron. The Spaniards, seeing their danger, ran their vessel 
up against the shore to put it under the protection of the roy- 
alist land batteries which, however, were not able to prevent 
the patriots from capturing the Maria Isabel. Then the Chile- 
nos waited for the arrival of the transports ; five of the nine 
fell successively into their hands with 700 soldiers, and of the 
rest of the expedition only 600 men succeeded in reaching the 
royalists on land. Thirty-eight days after their departure from 
Valparaiso the small Chilean squadron entered triumphantly 
into the same harbor with its rich spoil. 

Colonel Sanchez who had been left by Osorio in the 
command of the remnant of royalists to harrass the patriots, 
was forced by these to retreat farther south, and with great 
difficulty he reached Valdivia which was still controlled by the 
royalists ; there he also embarked for Peru. The whole north, 
center, and south as far as Valdivia were now in the hands of 
the patriots. Colonel Freire who had been appointed inten- 
dente of Concepcion reestablished the republican authority and 
methods in all the towns of the Araucanian frontier and in- 
augurated a government of conciliation and clemency. 

LORD COCHRANE. 

Meanwhile the Chilean squadron scoured the seas victor- 
iously under the command of Vice-admiral Thomas Cochrane, 
Count of Dunderald, who was an English sailor of European 
reputation. Having been accused in England of having di- 
vulged false reports concerning the wars of Napoleon for the 
purpose of doing exchange business, he had been expelled 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 363 



from the English marine and deprived of his honors ; later, 
however, his former position and distinctions were restored 
to him. Like others of his countrymen, Lord Cochrane had 
come to Chile to serve in its struggle for independence. Com- 
manding the Chilean navy he swept the Peruvian coast twice 
and even reached Guayaquil, seizing some merchant vessels 
and forcing the Spanish war vessels to hide behind the forti- 
fications of Callao. Cochrane not being able to attack them 
there, went south and planned to capture the forts of Valdivia. 
Valdivia is situated some fifteen miles from the Pacific, on the 
banks of a navigable river, and was at the time protected by 
118 guns and more than 1000 soldiers in nine forts. Cochrane 
had but three vessels and Intendente Freire aided him with 
250 soldiers who were commanded by Major George Beau- 
chef, a French soldier, who also had been in Napoleon's cam- 
paigns. With these scant forces Cochrane appeared unex- 
pectedly before Valdivia. Before the Spaniards could prepare 
resistance the Chilenos had taken some of the forts ; the rest 
were forced to surrender and consequently Valdivia also was 
incorporated into the new republic (February 4th, 1820)'. 

THE LIBERATING EXPEDITION TO PERU, l820. 

During Lord Cochrane's- exploits O'Higgins and San 
Martin brought the fleet and the army in readiness that should 
invade Peru. The first half of San Martin's vast project had 
been gloriously concluded and now he got ready to carry the 
second half into effect; O'Higgins was his stand-by. Im- 
mense difficulties had to be overcome in two directions. On 
the one hand the Argentine government had authorized San 
Martin's expedition to Chile but with ill-will and now opposed 
his expedition to Peru. It was that fatal year 1820 in which 
ten governments of the Argentine Republic violently succeeded 
one another. Anarchy gnawed at the very life of the provinc- 
es and the Argentine army of Upper Peru dissolved itself 
therein. — Besides the anarchy, the Spanish general La Serna 



364 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



threatened Upper Peru with a powerful army, and at the same 
time it was learned that the Spanish king got a numerous 
army in readiness in Cadiz against the river La Plata. This 
was the same army from which Morillo in Venezuela, had ex- 
pected help, but which revolted and stayed in Spain, to the 
great release of the patriots north and south. The Argentine 
presidents consequently, on account of the internal strife and 
the danger approaching from the outside, ordered San Mar- 
tin to repass the Andes with his army in order to control the 
anarchy and to defend the country against the Spaniards. But 
San Martin, believing to render his country greater services by 
continuing in his undertaking, resisted his government's order, 
i. e. he disobeyed. This disobedience resulted in sad experi- 
ences for him later; but in the light of history it was the 
higher wisdom. Some of his Argentine troops, apparently 
under the leadership of General Las Heras, followed their 
government's call and returned; the majority, however, stayed 
with San Martin. But this majority was less than one-third 
of the troops who were being enlisted for the expedition to 
Peru, more than two-thirds being Chilenos. On the other 
hand Chile's poverty became a great drawback in the undertak- 
ing; for the young republic was impoverished through the 
seven years' war and now the expenses of the expeditionary 
fleet and army rested exclusively upon her. Despite all the 
difficulties O'Higgins and San Martin persevered in the prep- 
arations and succeeded in uniting, after the most strenuous 
exertions, 8 war and 16 transport vessels, 4,100 men, provi- 
sions for six months, and arms for 15,000 soldiers. Never 
had such a strong expedition navigated the Pacific. The Chi- 
lean navy commanded by Lord Cochrane sailed out of the har- 
bor of Valparaiso August 20th, 1820, carrying the liberating 
army with San Martin in command. 

In Peru San Martin did not fight any battles, but his 
movements obliged Viceroy La Serna to abandon Lima and to 
retreat to the mountains. The Peruvian forces of Upper 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 365 



Peru had to be withdrawn to defend the viceroyship and did 
not menace the Argentine patriots any longer. Since San 
Martin had foreseen this, could he have served his country 
better? In Lima he proclaimed the independence of Peru; 
but as will be seen in the revolutionary history of that country 
he did not prosecute the war. After an interview with Boli- 
var he withdrew from the field and left to his rival the glory of 
consummating the liberty of Peru and of carrying the great 
revolution of the whole continent to a finish in the battles of 
Junin and Ayacucho. 

ADMINISTRATION OF o'HIGGINS. 

The glorious labors of war did not impede O'Higgins 
from attending to the moral and material progress of the 
young republic. Although he ordered to suppress the scutch- 
eons and titles of nobility to eradicate the remnants of royalty, 
yet he created the order, called "legion of merit" to reward the 
good servants of the republic, which was not good republican 
sentiment. He re-opened the public library and the National 
Institute and established a military academy. He prohibited 
the unhealthy custom of burying the dead in the churches and 
opened the first cemeteries. O'Higgins built market places in 
Santiago and beautified the city by opening wide streets ; such 
as, the Alameda de las Delicias which is the most beautiful 
street the author has ever seen. By finishing the Maipo canal 
he turned a barren plain into green fields where somewhat 
later a town was founded which was called San Bernardo in 
remembrance and to the honor of Bernhard O'Higgins. The 
president managed the scant funds of the country economically 
and fitly and Chile's credit rose abroad. In the last year of 
his government O'Higgins sent a commissioner to London who 
obtained a loan of 5,000,000 pesos from English capitalists. 

o'higgins' dictature. 
When San Martin withdrew from Peru, he was vexed to 
hear that he had wanted to make himself a sovereign and 



366 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



wrote : "The presence of a successful soldier, no matter how 
much disinterestedness he may have, is feared by the states 
that constitute themselves anew." This fear was, at least in 
part, realized by O'Higgins. Strong through the prestige of 
victories and through the grand services he had rendered his 
country, his inclination to dictatorial power grew firmer and 
the organization of a democratic republican government was 
postponed. Having in the first years of his administration 
still war on hand he deemed it necessary to have a central and 
rtrong government, one that could direct the war and suffocate 
anarchical uprisings, such as damaged the neighboring repub- 
lic of Argentina and the Colombian Confederation. O'Hig- 
gins cared neither for constitutions, nor for congresses, nor 
for full liberty ; these according to his judgment engendered 
fatal factions. Nor did he think the ignorant people capable 
of enjoying full liberty, in which thought he agreed with our 
statesmen who say that a republic is secure only in the enlight- 
enment, in the intellectual and moral development, of its cit- 
izens. During six years O'Higgins happily kept anarchy 
aloof ; but he was in those years an absolute king, a dictator 
whose will was the country's law. However, finally O'Hig- 
gins yielded to public opinion and agreed to call an assembly 
which might formulate a constitution. The cabildo named 
representatives who should meet with those of the government. 
This assembly framed a constitution which, however, left to 
the supreme director about the same unlimited powers he had 
exercised thus far. The public ill-will then became general 
and increased the dissatisfaction with the existing government. 

o'higgins' abdication. 

At last the storm broke loose. The people of Concepcion 
revolted and proclaimed the illustrious General Freire supreme 
director, under whose orders all the towns south of the *river 
Maule put themselves. In the far south and the north of the 
country analogous movements took place. In Santiago the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 367 



most notable citizens met in the large consulate hall and asked 
the director to attend their deliberations. O'Higgins, for- 
saken by his troops, had to yield and appeared before the as- 
sembly. The citizens brought their complaints respectfully, 
but also with republican integrity, and asked him to lay down 
the reins of government, to the end that the overthrow of the 
country might be prevented. O'Higgins did not think of re- 
sisting. Then — January 28th, 1823 — and there he re- 
signed his position and placed the government in the hands of 
a, provisional junta, composed of three citizens. Soon after 
he left for Peru, separating himself from the country which he 
had served so well and which he could not see any more. Sad ! 
Abdication meant free-will banishment. All the great leaders 
of the revolution passed through the same sad experience. 

ADVENTURES AND DRASTIC ENDS OF THE CARRERAS. 

As the Carrera brothers acted an important part in the 
Chilean revolution, let us briefly follow their subsequent ca- 
reers to see how they ended. 

While San Martin and O'Higgins organized the army of 
the Andes in Mendoza, Don J. M. Carrera, having been re- 
jected by the first, went to Buenos Aires where his brothers 
and some companions joined him. He embarked for the 
United States to look for the means which he thought were 
necessary to liberate his adopted country, Chile. After a year 
of incredible labors he succeeded in gaining a few American 
merchants who furnished him five vessels and equipment on 
credit. He also engaged about 30 English and French offi- 
cers and then returned to Buenos Aires where a few days after 
his arrival the news of the victory of Chacabuco spread. Car- 
rera spoke of going to the Pacific with his expedition to co- 
operate in the destruction of the Spaniards. But Pueyrredon 
who then was the supreme director of the Argentine affairs, 
fearing that the Carreras would bring discord to Chile, pro- 
hibited the expedition to leave and finally had J. M. Carrera 



368 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



arrested. The latter, however, escaped and went to Montevi- 
deo ; his plan frustrated entirely and the North American mer- 
chants were the losers. 

Exasperated by the persecutions which his brothers ex- 
perienced, they resolved to pursue their course over land to 
Chile secretly and there to excite a revolution to overthrow 
their hated rivals, San Martin and O'Higgins. The two broth- 
ers left Buenos Aires on different days and over different 
routes ; but the two were recognized and arrested separately 
and were united in the jail of Mendoza. San Martins secre- 
tary, the very active lawyer B. Monteagudo was sent to Men- 
doza to accelerate the trial which the governor of the town 
had already initiated. The two Carreras were sentenced for 
conspiracy and were shot on the plaza of Mendoza. Some 
hours later the town bells announced the victory of Maipo 
which had been won three days previous. 

Don J. M. Carrera swore to avenge his brothers' deaths. 
To clear himself from suspicion and to attack his opponents, 
he became a publisher in Montevideo. Later he united himself 
with some federal Argentine chiefs for the purpose of chang- 
ing the hostile government of Buenos Aires and of opening 
the way to invade Chile. During more than two years he was 
in many combats, alternately victorious and defeated, and, 
embracing anarchy, he took a leading part in the overthrow of 
governments by which the very existence of the Argentine Re- 
public was threatened in the unfortunate year 1820. When 
men more friendly to him entered upon the Argentine presi- 
dency he was allowed to organize a body of Chilenos of whom 
he brought 600 men together to invade Chile. But the ener- 
getic plenipotentiary of Chile in Buenos Aires, M. Zanyartu, 
left nothing undone to defeat the plans of the Chilean adven- 
turer and succeeded in urging his men to leave him. Carrera, 
almost forsaken and left alone, united himself with the Pam- 
pas Indians whose depredations, however, he could not con- 
trol and finally resolved to force his way into Chile with the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



369 



few companions that were faithful to him. In this endeavor 
he was attacked and defeated by forces from Mendoza and 
delivered into the hands of the authorities by his own men. 
There he was sentenced and shot on the same plaza on which 
three years previous an equal fate had befallen his two broth- 
ers. Nemesis: This same J. M. Carrera, out of culpable am- 
bition, had banished Dr. Rozas, the first promoter of Chile's 
independence, to Mendoza where he had died, sad and alone; 
and in the same place Carrera now found his own drastic end. 



24 



370 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



INDEPENDENCE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE 
COLOMBIAN CONFEDERATION. 

i8ij to 182 j. 

At the close of the year 1815, after many tenacious bat- 
tles had been fought, Venezuela's revolution had completely 
collapsed and the country had to submit to the vigorous despot- 
ism of Brigadier-general Salvador de Moxo, while cruel Mo- 
rillo pacified New Granada. Only a few patriotic leaders 
continued to annoy the royalists on the interior plains of the 
rivers Orinoco and Apure. The rest were fugitives ; Bolivar, 
the liberator, and a few others had gone to Jamaica. The 
small island Margarita in front of Cumana served some pa- 
triots as asylum, among whom was Colonel J. B. Arizmendi. 
This leader, though he was pursued by the governor of the 
island, with about 30 companions overpowered the garrison of 
a port, killing every Spaniard. Then under Arizmendi's flag 
soon 1500 men rallied with whom, though they were but poor- 
ly armed, the leader began a fight without quarter on the 
island. The larger part was already in the hands of the pa- 
triots when untiring Bolivar arrived at its coast. 

As Bolivar had not been able to procure help in Jamaica, 
he had gone to Haiti whose Negro president, A. Pition, had 
received him cordially and furnished him some of the resources 
he sought to make Venezuela independent. The rich Hollan- 
der Louis Brion also assisted, furnishing seven merchantmen 
which he equipped for the struggle. Bolivar having come with 
an expedition of 250 to Margarita, disposed that Maringo and 
Piar go to operate in the east of Venezuela, while he wanted to 
go farther west, and he landed at a point west of Caracas. On 
that coast the false alarm was circulating that the wild Span- 
ish leader Morales was approaching. The expeditionists ran 
to embark and sailed away with Bolivar, without waiting for 
many of their companions. Among those left behind was the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 371 



Scotch general Mac Gregor. This young commander was 
soon followed by 650 men who undertook a campaign towards 
the east that became heroic and memorable. Among enemies 
much more numerous than themselves they traversed 450 
miles, fought various royalist bodies, gained two splendid vic- 
tories, and even occupied the important city Barcelona. Here 
Mac Gregor was attacked by Morales, but he routed the Span- 
iards, throwing them into utter confusion (September 17th, 
1816). With Mac Gregor's feats correspond those of young 
/. A. Paez. Captain Paez received the command of 500 
knights one day and in the following night he attacked a divi- 
sion of 1500 Spaniards at Mata de la Miel', inflicting great 
mortality and taking 400 prisoners ; their lives he spared. 
Four months later he destroyed an army of 2000 royalists in 
the battle of Montecal. Though always lacking provisions 
and ammunitions that valiant captain fought the royalists a 
hundred times in the regions of the Apure river. 

Bolivar, having landed on the continent, did not meet with 
recognition. Even the patriots of Cumana whom General 
Bermudez commanded, did not want to know him. Rejected 
by the commander and accused of being a coward and a trai- 
tor, the liberator, feeling insulted and sad in heart, returned 
to Haiti to look for his friend Pition. Unselfish Brion was 
one of the few who remained faithful to him, and as the Hol- 
lander had influence because he was the owner of the vessels, 
he finally succeeded in his effort to have Bolivar called to 
direct the war in Venezuela again. Having landed at Barcelo- 
na, the liberator resolved to unite himself with the guerilla 
patriots of the Orinoco and to continue the campaign in the 
east that had happily been begun by Piar and other patriotic 
chiefs. Four months after his arrival Bolivar came to the 
Orinoco where the Spanish general M. Latorre was besieged 
in fort Angostura. Bolivar closed in upon the fort, while Ad- 
miral Brion fought the Spanish vessels at the mouth of the 
Orinoco and then ascended the river to assist Bolivar. At- 



372 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 

tacked in front and from behind Latorre was forced to evacu- 
ate the fort and to abandon the whole province (May, 1817). 
This victory of Angostura rehabilitated the prestige of Boli- 
var, so that all the patriots, even Bermudez himself, now con- 
ceded that he was the ablest and most aggressive leader. How- 
ever, Bolivar's political plans did not suit all ; serious opposi- 
tion arose against them, which the liberator dissolved by force. 

When the Spanish general Morillo, the pacifier, had re- 
turned from Xew Granada to Venezuela In 1816, he found 
that the revolution had again assumed great proportions. The 
triumphs of Paez on the plains of the Apure caused him to 
open a campaign in person against that patriotic chief (Janu- 
ary, 1817). Obliged to withdraw before Morillo's 4000 men, 
Paez set the dry grass of the prairie on fire to impede the in- 
fantry to come to the assistance of the cavalry and with but 
111 horsemen he defeated the latter completely. The Span- 
ish army had to retreat and was tenaciously pursued by Paez, 
who charged them fourteen different times in the retreat. 
After this, Morillo undertook a campaign against the rebels of 
the island of Margarita which was a hotbed of the revolution- 
ists of the east. During one entire month Morillo fought in 
vain to take the island, which has been compared to ancient 
heroic Sparta in its defense. This defense together with the 
news of the capture of Angostura by the patriots which took 
place at this time, obliged Morillo to return to Caracas. 

While he was in the capital and pondered over the condi- 
tions which were adverse to the Spanish cause, Morillo thought 
of improving his situation by adopting conciliatory methods. 
He. therefore, took the government out of the hands of- hated 
Moxo and a little later published the pardon which the king 
had granted to the rebels of Venezuela. Notwithstanding or 
probably vx spite of the pardon, Bolivar marched with the whole 
patriotic army boldly to meet Morillo who had marched to 
encamp on the plains of Calabozo, surprised the royalist forces 
February 12th, 1818, routed them, and obliged them to shut 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 373 



themselves up in the town of the same name. Bolivar did not 
make use of this advantage and allowed the enemy to retire 
towards Caracas. Then the patriots took up the pursuit, but 
were repulsed in various encounters and finally completely de- 
feated in La Puerta, the same place where four years pre- 
viously Boves had defeated Morinyo and even Bolivar. Val- 
iant Paez came to Bolivar's assistance, kept the enemy back, 
and protected his retreat towards Angostura. This victory 
secured Morillo the title Marshal de La Puerta which Ferdi- 
nand VII. sent him. 

Bolivar undertook other work. The cessation of the Na- 
poleonic wars in Europe in 1815 had left many warriors with- 
out occupation. Bolivar called for experienced British offi- 
cers .to come to serve in the patriotic army and also for volun- 
teer soldiers, who were attracted by offers of recompense. 
The officers came and were teaching the patriotic soldiers mil- 
itary discipline and subordination and the liberator was organ- 
izing new batallions with the English and Scotch auxiliaries 
who had followed the call when Admiral Brion arrived at 
Angostura with arms and ammunitions which he had acquired 
in the West Indias. Angostura was made the provisional 
capital of the state, because the town's happy situation on the 
Orinoco afforded direct communication with the West Indian 
islands. Bolivar then proceeded to call a general congress of 
representatives. As Spain had solicited the intervention of 
the European powers to re-establish her authority in South 
America, the liberator desired to manifest his views clearly 
and declared November 20th, 1818, in a solemn manner that 
Venezuela is, by divine and human right, a free and independ- 
ent state and that only in the capacity of nation with nation 
would she negotiate with Spain. Congress having assembled, 
Bolivar was chosen president of the republic and chief of the 
army; his powers were extended and his authority strength- 
ened. 

Meanwhile Morillo at the head of 6,500 men had again 



374 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



marched out against never defeated Paez. After many use- 
less marches across the llanos of the Apure the arrogant Count 
of Cartagena and Marshal of La Puerta had to withdraw 
without having even been able to pursue the light cavalry of 
Paez who commanded 2000 horsemen at the time. Fatigued 
by crossing apparently unlimited marshes and briar lands, the 
supplies cut off, attacked when least expected, and pursued 
incessantly by enemies who did not offer a battle, Morillo lost 
1000 men in that retreat. Bolivar came to unite his forces 
with those of Paez on the Apure llanos, continuing the cam- 
paign in those regions. In the engagement of Media April 
2nd, 1819, 150 riders commanded by Paez defeated 1000 Span- 
ish cavalrymen, inflicting a loss of 400 upon them. 

About at this time Bolivar received a communication from 
Bernhard O'Higgins who then was supreme director of Chile, 
in which he invited the liberator to assist in the campaign 
against Peru, as this country was the center of the Spanish 
resources on the continent. For this purpose O'TIiggins and 
San Martin who had the previous year destroyed the Span- 
ish power in Chile in the glorious battle of Maipo, were then 
making vast preparations. Bolivar comprehended the im- 
mensity of the project which had originated with San Martin, 
as we learned. Having heard from another source that the 
despotism of Viceroy Samano of New, Granada had provoked 
the formation of numerous patriotic guerilla bands in that 
country, the liberator resolved to make use of Morillo's retreat 
and to return to New Granada, initiating thus his most glor- 
ious and memorable campaign. He left Paez on the llanos of 
the Apure, between Morillo and Samano, and with 2500 men 
marched in the direction of Bogata, thinking of strengthening 
his column on the way with the guerillas of the New Granadi- 
an general Santander, who might form the vanguard. The 
march became most strenuous; for as far as Pore which lies 
at the foot of the Andes Bolivar's soldiers had to traverse 
very extensive lowlands, inundated by tropical rains, and had 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 375 



to cross rapid torrents, marching at times in water reaching 
up to the waists. On leaving Pore the scene changed ; for the 
expedition entered the rugged paths of the Colombian Andes, 
taking the direction of Tunja. 

BOLIVAR CROSSES THE ANDES, I819. 

Will the reader compare Bolivar's passage of the Andes 
with Hanifibal's feat when he crossed the Alps from France 
into Italy 218 B. C. Hannibal had a larger army, of course ; 
but where 1000 men cross, 50,000 may cross. And the An- 
des are higher than the Alps and their passes are just as steep 
and rugged as the Alpine passes, or are more so. It is, there- 
fore, our opinion that Bolivar's courage was as sublime and 
his achievement as great in 1819 as Hannibal's of old. t San 
Martin's army had two years previous already crossed the 
southern Andes from Argentina to Chile. 

The snowy peaks of the eastern Cordillera appeared in 
the distance. Instead of peaceful lakes through which they 
had waded, they were now met by great masses of water tumb- 
ling down from the heights. The roads ran along the edges of 
precipices and were borded by gigantic trees upon whose tops 
rested the clouds which dissolved themselves in incessant 
rains. After a four days' march the horses foundered ; an 
entire squadron of llaneros deserted when they could not ride 
on horseback. The torrents were crossed on narrow tremb- 
ling bridges, formed of trunks of trees. Where the torrents 
were passable, the current was so strong that the infantry had 
to pass two by two, with their arms thrown round each other's 
shoulders. And woe to him who lost his footing; he lost his 
life too. Bolivar frequently passed and repast these torrents 
on horseback, carrying behind him the sick and weakly, or the 
women who accompanied their men. There the temperature 
was still moist and warm ; at night life was supportable by the 
aid of little fire. 

But as they ascended the mountain, the scene changed 



376 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



again. Immense rocks piled one upon another and hills of 
snow bounded the view on every side ; below lay the clouds, 
veiling the depth of the abyss ; an ice cold wind cut through 
the stoutest clothing. At these heights no other noise is heard 
than the roaring torrents left behind and the screams of the 
condor circling round the snowy peaks above. Vegetation dis- 
appears, only linchens are to be seen clinging to the rocks and 
a tall plant bearing plumes instead of leaves and crowned with 
yellow flowers like to funeral torches. To make the scene 
more dreary yet the path was marked out by crosses, erected 
in memory of travelers who had perished by the way. On 
entering the glacial region, the provisions gave out ; the cattle 
they had brought with them as their chief resource could not 
go further. They reached the summit by the Paya pass where 
a battalion could have held an entire army in check. It was 
held by an outpost of 300 Spaniards who were dislodged by the 
vanguard under Santander without much difficulty. 

Now the men began to murmur. Bolivar called a council 
of war to whom he pointed out the greater difficulties that still 
lay before them, and he asked if they wanted to persevere or 
go back. All were of the opinion that they should go on, a 
decision which infused fresh spirit into the weary troops. In 
this passage more than 100 men died of cold and exposure, 
fifty of whom were Englishmen. No horse had survived. It 
was necessary to leave the spare arms behind and even some 
of those that were carried by the soldiers. When the army 
reached Socha in the beautiful valley of Sagomoso in the 
heart of the province of Tunja July 6th, 1819, it had dwindled 
to a mere skeleton. Bolivar had endured it all with incom- 
parable courage, attending to his troops and dividing with the 
sick the little he had left from rice, crackers, and sugar. While 
in Socha Bolivar sent assistance back to the stragglers left be- 
hind, collected horses, detached parties to scour the country 
around, and communicated with some few guerillas who still 
roamed about. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 377 



Bolivar rested his men three days and then had to act; 
for Barreiro, the Spanish commander, occupied a position 
which commanded the main road to Bogata ; it was necessary 
to attack him before he could receive re-enforcement from that 
city or from Morillo. No sooner had Bolivar his army once 
more in hand when by a skillful flank movement he established 
himself on Barreiro's rear, in a country abounding in re- 
sources. The royalists were forced to evacuate their entrench- 
ments and a hard fought, but indecisive action took place July 
25th, after which Bolivar recrossed the Sagomoso river and 
forced Barreiro again to change his position. Then deceiving 
him, too, by a retreat in the day time, he rapidly counter- 
marched by night, and August 5th captured the city of Tunja 
where he found good stores of arms and war material and 
where he placed himself between Barreiro's force and the 
army of Bogata. Barreiro, finding his communication cut, 
marched resolutely towards the capital; but it was too late. 
Bolivar had command of all the roads. Seeing that the roy- 
alists were advancing by the shortest road which crosses the 
small river Boyaca by a bridge, he posted his army on the 
right bank and waited for them. 

THE BATTLE OF BOYACA, AUGUST 7TH, 1819. 

The battle of August 7th commenced upon the bridge it- 
self where the Spanish skirmishers were driven back. Bar- 
reiro then formed his infantry in columns with calvary on the 
flanks, throwing out a battalion of light infantry on the right 
whose fire might enfilade the attacking columns of the patriots. 
The two contending forces were of about equal strength. The 
patriot center and right wings drove in an advanced party of 
royalist infantry and crossing a shallow stream threw them- 
selves upon the left wing of the royalist army, while the left 
patriot wing which consisted of cavalry attacked in front. The 
royalist cavalry fled, the infantry retreated to a fresh position, 
but on a second attack threw their arms down. The vanguard 



378 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



under Santander took care of all who were not with the main 
body. The victory was complete. Anzuategui who led the 
infantry of the right and the center and Rondon who led the 
final charge of the llanero horse, were the heroes of the day. 
The English auxiliaries were seen for the first time under fire 
and showed that British solidity for which they were always 
famous. The trophies of the battle were 1600 prisoners, in- 
cluding Barreiro himself and 37 officers, 100 killed, and all 
their artillery and small arms. Barreiro and his principal of- 
ficers were cruelly executed by order of General Santander 
who had risen in rebellion on account of the cruelties the Span- 
iards had committed against the patriots. 

Boyaca is after Maipo the great battle of South America. 
It has been called the Colombian Waterloo and gave the pre- 
ponderance of the patriot arms to the north, as Maipo had 
done to the south. It gave independence to New Granada and 
isolated Morillo in Venezuela. Three days after the battle 
Viceroy Samano fled from Bogata, leaving 1,000,000 pesos in 
the treasury. When Bolivar entered the capital, he was ap- 
plauded by the people who proclaimed him liberator of New 
Granada. 

After Bolivar had achieved these splendid results, he 
thought of entering upon a plan which he had cherished for a 
long time ; namely, to organize one great republic by uniting 
Venezuela and New Granada. The Granadian general F. P. 
Santander, who had accompanied Bolivar's expedition as lead- 
er of the vanguard, declared himself in favor of that union. 
With this plan in mind Bolivar returned to Venezuela, leaving 
Santander in charge of the New Granadian affairs. His long 
march was a series of uninterrupted ovations. He united 
again with Paez on the plain of the Apure and entered the pla- 
za of Angostura to give congress an account of the campaign. 
Congress having accepted the idea of uniting Venezuela with 
New Granada, laid down the fundamental law, or the consti- 
tution, of the larger republic and gave this new republic the 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 379 



name Colombia or the Colombian Confederation (December 
27th, 1819). Bolivar was nominated president of the confed- 
eration by congress and the distinguished orator F. A. Zea 
vice-president. The latter left for Europe soon after to ne- 
gotiate a loan and the recognition of independence. Special 
governors were also appointed for each constituent part of the 
confederation; namely, for New Granada General Santander, 
for Venezuela Dr. Roscio. The capital of the republic should 
in future bear the name City of Bolivar, an appellation which 
Angustora received then and has kept ever since. 

The victory of Boyaca and the formation of the Colom- 
bian Confederation assured the final triumph of independence 
in the northern section of South America. Nevertheless, the 
Spaniards still occupied the northern towns of New Granada 
and Quito, and Morillo had still an army in Venezuela. The 
Venezuelan patriots then undertook bold operations and forced 
Morillo into a situation of self-defense. He, however, knew 
that Ferdinand VII. united a numerous army in Cadiz to fight 
the American revolutionists, and although they were to go to 
Buenos Aires, Morillo hoped that part of those troops be sent 
to Venezuela for his assistance. But that army, before sailing, 
revolted under the direction of Colonel Riego and was en- 
gaged in the liberal revolution of Spain of 1820 in which the 
king was obliged to recognize the liberal constitution of 1812. 
The news of this revolt made the Count of Cartagena lose all 
hopes of help. The new liberal government of Spain gave 
him the instruction to negotiate with the revolutionists and to 
declare them that they would be allowed to govern the prov- 
inces they held with the understanding that they swear allegi- 
ance to the king of Spain. Bolivar and the other patriot lead- 
ers replied that they would not enter into peace negotiations, 
except on the basis of the recognition of the Colombian inde- 
pendence. The arrogant Count of Cartagena then solicited 
a truce which Bolivar accepted, agreeing on an armistice of six 
months, whereupon Morillo desired an interview with Bolivar. 



380 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Having met in the town of Santa Ana, the two hostile leaders 
embraced one another and spent a few hours, conversing like 
two old friends. Morillo, being released from the command 
as he himself had petitioned, at last embarked for Spain, leav- 
ing Marshal M. Latorre in his place and carrying away a large 
treasure which he had taken in America. 

The patriots did not respect the armistice rigorously ; for 
they promoted recruiting and carried it on even in provinces 
that were still under Spanish control. The royalist leader 
Latorre consequently, declared the truce broken after five 
months. While General Bermudez took Caracas and lost the ^ 
city again, Bolivar went to unite his forces with those of Gen- 
eral Paez. On the plains of Carabobo General Latorre was in 
camp with 5500 valiant soldiers. To attack him the patriot 
army, 6000 men strong, entered the defiles of the mountain 
which separated the two armies. The day before the battle 
Latorre had detached two battalions of infantry and one 
squadron of cavalry to strengthen another royalist division, 
thus materially weakening his force on the eve of a decisive 
action. The rest of his army he drew up on the wide plain 
of Carabobo, at the foot of the passes that lead through the 
Cordillera. 

THE BATTLE OF CARABORO, JUNE 24TH, l82I. 

Bolivar, after surprising the principal pass June 23d, oc- 
cupied the heights looking down upon the plain. Next morn- 
ing he detached Paez wtih 1500 horse, the Apure legion, and 
the British legion to attack the right flank of the royalists, 
while he with the bulk of the army remained on the heights 
ready to descend by the main pass. The Apure battalion was 
in front, led by Paez in person Latorre, with three battalions 
and under cover of a heavy artillery fire, attacked this battal- 
ion as it left the pass and threw it into disorder ; but the Brit- 
ish legion, led by Colonel Ferrier, came quickly to its assist- 
ance, deployed in line, and with front rank kneeling poured in- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 381 



so heavy a fire that the advance of the royalists was checked. 
The Apure cavalry rallied and charged on the right flank. 
Ferrier, having burned all his cartridges, led on his men with 
the bayonet and drove the enemy before him, while the Llane- 
ro horse rode them down ; the enemy's ranks were disordered 
by the flight of his own cavalry. One battalion stubbornly 
kept its formation and repulsed every charge made upon it 
during a retreat of twenty miles until it rejoined the rest of 
the routed army which took refuge in Puerto Cabello. This 
battle of Carabobo, won by only a part of the patriot army, 
secured forever the independence of Venezuela, as that of 
Boyaca secured the New Granadian independence. Five days 
after the battle Bolivar and Paez held their entrance into Car- 
acas, and the Spanish garrison of fort Guayra was promptly 
forced to surrender. The independent government offered 
passports to all royalists who wished to leave the country. 

At that time a general congress of deputies of twenty-two 
provinces of Venezuela and New Granada was in session at 
Cucuta. There the union of the two countries was ratified 
and the congress after lengthy deliberations endorsed the con- 
stitution of the new Colombian Confederation (August 30th. 
1821). According to same a president should be elected by 
congress every four years, a vice-president who might substi- 
tute him, a senate, and a house of representatives. The same 
congress declared new-born slaves free, formulated a plan of 
studies for schools, recognized liberty of the press, protected 
the Indians, and organized the various branches of govern- 
ment. It also elected Bolivar first constitutional president of 
the confederation and Santander vice-president ; both went to 
Cucuta to enter upon the discharge of their duties. Soon 
after Bogata was made capital of the Colombian Confedera- 
tion. 

Without resting upon his laurels and also, as it seems, 
without attending to the presidential duties, the liberator went 
again from Venezuela to New Granada to direct the campaign 



382 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



which had already begun, against the royalists of the Cauca 
region and Quito, Vice-president Santander having already 
obliged the royalists to retreat from the Magadalena river. 
The Spanish governor of Quito, Aymerich, was thus threat- 
ened from the north as he had been from the south; for the 
province of Guayaquil, south of Quito, had been agitated by 
San Martin's invasion of Peru, had declared itself independ- 
ent, appointed a governor, and sent a division of 1500 men 
against Quito. Aymerich had routed the Guayaquilians on 
the plain of Guachi and now, two months later, marched to- 
wards the north to attack the approaching Colombians and 
also routed them Febuary 2nd, 1821, near the river Juanambu. 
The Guayaquilians asked Bolivar for assistance and also San 
Martin who operated in Peru at the time. Bolivar acting more 
promptly sent General Sucre who embarked at Buena Ventura 
with a body of troops, marched to Guayaquil and took this 
province under the protection of the Colombian Confedera- 
tion. In an encounter with Aymerich Sucre was defeated, 
wherefore he asked San Martin for assistance who dispatched 
a division from Peru under the command of Colonel Santa 
Cruz. Thus Sucre raised his army to 2000 men and marched 
rapidly against Quito. He scaled the Cotopaxi, undertook a 
daring nightly march through the defiles of the Pichincha 
where he was attacked by Aymerich May 24th, 1821. Sucre 
won the battle and gained a splendid victory over him. This 
battle of Pichincha is one of the most notable in the military 
history of America ; for they fought over volcanic lava, in the 
midst of clouds, on heights only known to condors. Next day 
Quito capitulated and also declared for incorporation into the 
Colombian Confederation. Bolivar then went to Guayaquil 
and, after a cold interview with San Martin, succeeded in 
bringing those people out of their vacillation so as also to de- 
clare for incorporation into Colombia. Later we shall again 
refer to San Martin's and Bolivar's interview. 

About the middle of the year 1821 the Spaniards still oc- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



383 



cupied Panama and Cartagena in New Granada, and Puerto 
Cabello and Cumana in Venezuela. The Venezuelan general 
Montilla, assisted by Brion's squadron, besieged Cartagena. 
The news of the patriot victory of Carabobo caused the garri- 
son of that stronghold to capitulate. A month and a half later 
the patriots of Panama started a revolt and this province also 
joined the Colombian Confederation. The city of Cumana in 
Venezuela surrendered to General Bermudez ; but the Span- 
iards still held on to the important port of Puerto Cabello. 
There General Latorre commanded who, however, delivered 
the command to Brigadier-general Morales, the man of mourn- 
ful celebrity. Being very active and profiting by the absence 
of Bolivar who then was at Guayaquil, Morales took Maracai- 
bo, Santa Marta, and other places along the coast and serious- 
ly menaced all Venezuela. During the year 1823 the patriots 
had to sustain repeated combats by land and by sea; but at 
last they forced Morales to surrender fort Maracaibo and to 
retire to Cuba. Puerto Cabello in which Calzada commanded, 
resisted a long and laborious siege, but General Paez assaulted 
the fort in the night of November 7th, 1823, and took it, mak- 
ing Calzada and many officers and soldiers prisoners. Thus 
all Colombia was free and brought under the republican flag. 

With the consent of congress and with a pension of 30,000 
pesos Bolivar in that same year, 1823, went to direct the war 
in Peru, Sucre, the celebrated general, having preceded him 
already with a Colombian division. The victories of Junin 
and Ayacucho which we shall relate in the revolutionary his- 
tory of Peru, were the great achievements of this campaign by 
which Peru and Bolivia were set free. 



384 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



INDEPENDENCE OF PERU. 
1821 to 1826. 

The glorious South American revolution, initiated in 
1810, had neither a response nor a representative in Peru. 
While the other Spanish American colonies fought tenacious- 
ly for their liberty and independence, from Peru came the 
armies and the materials to fight them. The Spanish Peru- 
vians fought the patriots of Quito and Upper Peru, of Argen- 
tina and Chile. There was not a single man in Peru during 
the revolutionary period who stood on the level of those who 
promoted and directed the revolutionary movements in the 
other countries. That Peru might obtain her independence 
it was expedient that San Martin and O'Higgins, Bolivar and 
Sucre carry the revolution to the very doors of the viceroy. 

Nevertheless there had been a certain discontent with the 
Spanish authorities within the borders of the viceroyship. It 
broke out in Cuzco. The news of the surrender of Monte- 
video to the Argentine patriots had reached the city, when 
Angulo, though he was a prisoner at the time, thought of re- 
volting. He won over to himself the guards that had him in 
charge and one night in August, 1814, seized Governor Concha 
and the principal Spaniards of Cuzco. Next morning a pro- 
visional government of three members was organized, Angulo 
reserving for himself the military command. The principal 
member of the junta was chief M. G. Pumacagua who was 
said to be a descendant of the ancient Incas. The revolters 
raised troops and in three months they overpowered a number 
of important cities. Pumacagua 's insurrection brought Vice- 
roy Abascal into trouble who since 1810 had sustained the 
royalist cause on the continent, fighting the revolutions in the 
adjacent colonies, wherefore he had no forces in reserve. 
Fortunately for the viceroy, however, General Pezuela had 
been victorious in Upper Peru and therefore was able to de- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 385 



tach 1200 men whom he sent against the revolutionists under 
General J. Ramirez who routed them and gained a series of 
triumphs. Pumacagua retreated to Cuzco and near this city 
Ramirez attacked his army again and defeated it completely 
March 15th, 1815. Pumacagua was by his own men deliv- 
ered to the Spanish authorities and was hanged. A few days 
later the other insurrection leaders were also executed in 
Cuzco. 

These successes and the victories in Upper Peru which 
General Pezuela had gained, re-established tranquility in the 
viceroyship for the present. But when Abascal vaingloried in 
them mostly, he learned that the Court of Spain had appointed 
victorious Pezuela viceroy in his stead. The latter put the 
army of Upper Peru in charge of General J. La Serna, went 
to Lima, and entered upon the duties of government July 7th, 
1816. Tranquility reigned in Peru still a few years ; then a 
storm arose and a change was wrought. The viceroy dis- 
posed of great resources, however, having 23,000 soldiers, ex- 
perienced leaders, and money in abundance. 

SAN MARTIN IN PERU. 

The powerful Chilean expedition of 8 war vessels and 16 
transports, carrying 4100 soldiers, arms for 15,000 men, and 
provisions for six months, which had left Valparaiso under 
orders of Lord Cochrane and San Martin, landed without dif- 
ficulties at the port of Pisco September 8th, 1820. This event 
produced deep impressions in Lima. Then Viceroy Pezuela, 
apprehensive of what might come, thought of the liberal con- 
stitution which had been promulgated in Spain after the rev- 
olution of the liberals of 1812, thinking* that this measure 
might facilitate an understanding. He opened negotiations 
with San Martin in Miraflores, six miles south of Lima, which, 
however, resulted in no understanding ; for the patriot pleni- 
potentiaries demanded the independence of Peru as basis of 
any agreement. 

25 



386 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



CAPTURE OF THE ESMERALDA AND ARENALES' SUCCESSES. 

San Martin dispatched General Arenales with a division 
of 1000 men from Pisco to revolutionize the people of the 
mountainous regions. Thereupon he himself left Pisco with 
his expedition and sailed to port Ancon, 18 miles north of 
Lima. While Arenales pursued his mission in the interior, 
Lord Cochrane, commanding the Chilean navy, blockaded Cal- 
lao, the port of Lima, where the magnificent Spanish frigate 
Esmeralda and other smaller vessels had found refuge under 
the impregnable forts. Taking advantage of the darkness of 
night the daring lord brought a few barges in readiness, 
manned them with 280 men, who rowed into the harbor and 
boarded the Esmeralda. Desperate was the fight that took 
place ; but Cochrane at last overpowered the Spaniards, took 
possession of the frigate, and pulled her out of the harbor 
(November 6th). 

San Martin, convinced of not being able to resist the 
numerous royalist army, if it be concentrated, again embarked 
his troops, landed farther north still, where he occupied Hua- 
ra, 36 miles from Lima, cutting thus the communication of 
the southern and northern provinces. The latter did not lose 
time to declare themselves in favor of independence ; the prov- 
ince of Guayaquil had already declared itself to that effect. 
An entire battalion of royalists went over to the patriot ranks 
and a little later Marshal Torre Tagle, intendente of Trujillo, 
put his province under San Martin's orders. Thus the whole 
north of Peru from Huara to Guayaquil came into the hands 
of the patriots (December 24th). Thirteen days later Gen- 
eral Arenales who had been in the interior returned with his 
force after a quick and successful campaign, having won a vic- 
tory at Nasca and having routed completely, at Pasco, Briga- 
dier-general D. O'Reilly with 1000 men whom the viceroy had 
sent against him. He had also promoted an almost general 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 387 



uprising in the towns of the mountain ridges and continued his 
march until he reached San Martin at Huara. 

NEW NEGOTIATIONS. 

Viceroy Pezuela had united a force of 8000 soldiers at 
Lima; but as he did not venture to attack the patriot leader 
his officers grew tired of his vacillations and demanded that 
he surrender position and command to General La Serna. 
Pezuela yielded. The patriots made use of the delays to fur- 
ther their cause to such an extent that neither the new viceroy 
was able to undertake any effective movement against them. — 
In these circumstances M. Abreu who had been commissioned 
by the Spanish government to negotiate peace with the insur- 
gents, arrived in Peru. San Martin succeeded in gaining 
Abreu's friendship and Viceroy La Serna made use of this 
to renew negotiations and to ask for another interview near 
Lima. San Martin proposed as condition of peace, that the 
independence of Peru be recognized, that two commissioners 
be sent to Spain who should petition a prince to occupy the 
throne of Peru, and that the country be governed by a regency 
in the mean time. These proposals were accepted by La Ser- 
na, but rejected by his officers. So the war continued. 

DECLARATION OF PERILS INDEPENDENCE. 

Peru's coast being blockaded by the Chilean navy and 
communications with the interior provinces cut off by Aren- 
ales' division, want was felt in Lima. As under these circum- 
stances La Serna was not able to maintain himself and his 
army in the capital, having already 1000 sick soldiers and no 
provisions, he left the sick behind and 200 soldiers in the fort 
of Callao and departed with the rest of his troops for the 
mountains. — Six days later San Martin entered Lima with- 
out ostentations and called an open meeting to be attended by 
the most noteworthy citizens. This gathering resolved to de- 
clare the independence of Peru and authorized San Martin to 



388 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



perform the ceremony, which he did July 28th, 1821. He 
would have preferred to keep the command of the army only, 
as he had done in Chile, and wished to confide the civil and 
political government to some one else ; but as the revolution 
of the last eleven years had not produced a single superior man 
in Peru who might be able to manage the affairs of a republic, 
San Martin took the administration into his own hands, ac- 
cepting the title Protector of Peru. 

The first acts of his government were to declare the new 
born children of slaves free and to suppress the mita, the du- 
ties of forced labor, and the contributions which since the con- 
quest had rested heavily upon the unfortunate natives. He 
created a national library, ordered schools to be opened, and 
dictated numerous police measures, pursuing fights and games 
persistently. San Martin founded the order of the sun to 
honor those who would mostly distinguish themselves through 
services for the cause of independence. He also made provi- 
sion for an assembly of representatives and sent the call out. 
General J. La Mar who was commander of the fort of Callao, 
was soon forced to surrender, whereupon he and a few other 
Spanish generals offered themselves for service in the patriot 
army. San Martin obliged these officers, however, to give 
satisfactory proofs of their fidelity. 

INTERVIEW CF SAN MARTIN AND BOLIVAR. 

The Colombians wanted the province of Guayaquil to be 
incorporated into their confederation, while San Martin 
claimed it would strengthen the independence of Peru, if it be- 
longed to that country. To decide this question San Martin 
went to Guayaquil where he had interviews with Bolivar who 
had arrived from the north. There the two greatest cham- 
pions of the Spanish American independence met. There is 
pathos in this meeting if you think of their past, of the inspira- 
tion both had obtained from Miranda, of their determination 
to liberate their native countries and the continent, of the bat- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 389 



ties each had won, the campaigns each had successfully led, 
the results each had attained. They met friendly ; but in their 
views they could not agree. Their deliberations never became 
known, they remain a mystery. Having had interviews for 
two days, they separated, cold, distrustful, and jealous of one 
another. San Martin returned to Peru, resolved to leave the 
country forever and to yield the field to his fortunate rival. 

SAN MARTINIS RETIREMENT, l822. 

At his departure for Guayaquil San Martin had put the 
Peruvian government in charge of Marshal Torre Tagle who 
should deliberate with his ministers. The election of deputies 
for congress had already taken place and they were assembled 
when he returned. The protector opened their sessions in 
Lima and before this body he laid the political and military 
command down, whereupon congress accorded him a vote of 
thanks and appointed him commander in chief of the Peruvian 
army. San Martin accepted the title, but declined to exercise 
the command. The same night he embarked at Ancon, full 
of sorrow and almost alone. On the long journey before him 
he came to Valparaiso, passed noiselessly through Chile, re- 
crossed the Andes, traversed his Argentine fatherland, and 
pursued his course to Europe where he lived to the end of his 
eventful life. 

LAST YEARS OF SAN MARTIN AND o'HIGGINS. 

We see San Martin leave Peru for Europe and saw 
O'Higgins leave Chile for Peru, both voluntary exiles. United 
in prosperity, these two illustrious leaders remained faithful 
friends in misfortune, keeping up a mutual correspondence in 
exile and always thinking of their fatherlands. The Argen- 
tine general lived in Europe with his only daughter, leading, at 
least at first, a life of poverty and lonesomeness. A Spanish 
banker who was his friend was the first to alleviate his mis- 
ery; later the Peruvian government apportioned him half the 



390 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



salary of a general, but did not always pay it; Chile's govern- 
ment granted him full general's salary which was paid him 
promptly up to his death. San Martin's longing for the coun- 
try of his youth grew stronger as the years rolled by. So in 
1828 he returned to Buenos Aires. However, fearing his pres- 
ence might complicate the internal dissentions which still dis- 
turbed his people, he did not even go ashore, but returned to 
Europe, not to see his native country again. Jose de San Mar- 
tin died in France in 1850, at the age of 72 years. His re- 
mains were brought back to Argentina and rest in a cemetery 
of Buenos Aires. 

Bernhard O'Higgins was well taken care of by the Peru- 
vian government which gave him, out of gratitude, a landed 
estate which yielded sufficiently to support himself, his mother, 
and his sister who stayed with him during almost twenty years. 
O'Higgins was never married. Shortly before his death he 
sent San Martin a present of 3000 pesos. He died in Lima 
in the year 1842, at the age of 64 years. His remains also, 
were brought home and rest in a Santiago cemetery. 

BOLIVAR IN PERU. 

We return to Peru. San Martin's retirement was fol- 
lowed by disagreements and misfortunes. Congress entrusted 
the executive power to a junta of three members, presided over 
by General La Mar. After many vacillations in respect to 
the war this triumvirate sent a division under General Arenales 
to the mountains against the royalist general Canterac and 
another under the command of the Argentine general R. Al- 
varado against the distinguished royalist J. Valdes, whose . 
force was 3000 men strong. With 3500 soldiers Alvarado 
sailed from Callao southward and gained some advantages in 
the province of Moquegua. But the slowness of his move- 
ments gave the active Canterac time to unite his forces with 
those of Valdes. The two Spanish commanders then attacked 
the patriots and repulsed them at Torata and routed them 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 391 



completely the following day at Moquegua, obliging the dis- 
persed remnants to re-embark hastily for Lima (January 21st, 
1823). This double defeat induced congress to concentrate 
the power of government for the purpose of giving unity and 
vigor to its action. The triumvirate was dissolved and by 
petition of the army the impetuous Riva Aguera was pro- 
claimed president of Peru. After a series of campaigns both 
of patriot and royalist armies which resulted in nothing but 
in changes of governments and in impoverishing the country, 
Bolivar, the liberator of Colombia, came to Lima September 
1st, 1823, and was received with grand demonstrations of en- 
thusiasm. Having been invested by the Peruvian congress 
with dictatorial powers, the liberator occupied his time primari- 
ly with re-establishing governmental unity and strength. Torre 
Tagle had become president in the meantime and became Bo- 
livar's tool. The liberator opened his camp in Huaraz, north 
of Lima, where his army increased steadily. He exacted con- 
tributions and taxes, received gifts and had silver taken from 
the churches to pay the salaries of the army. This was raised 
to the strength of 9500 men, consisted of Colombians and Pe- 
ruvians, of Chilenos and Argentinos, and was commanded by 
such leaders as Sucre, La Mar, Cordova, Santa Cruz, Neco- 
chea, Miller, and others. 

BATTLE OF JUNIN, AUGUST 6TH, 1824. 

The patriot cavalry opened the campaign, preparing the 
way for Bolivar who by and by forced his way, in spite of great 
hardships, across the mountains towards the southeast and 
united the entire patriot forces at Mount Pasco. The royalist 
general Canterac striving to make his retreat secure, marched 
to occupy the plain of Junin. This plain lies at the southern 
extremity of the great lake Reyes. On the eastern bank of 
the lake runs a level road, on the western bank is another which 
leads to the town of Junin and is much rougher. The plain is 



392 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



broken up by numerous hillocks and cut up by streams and 
marshes filled by the overflow from the lake. 

August 1st Canterac had advanced with his cavalry along 
the eastern road to reconnoitre and learned to his surprise that 
Bolivar was already on the other side of the lake. He re- 
treated rapidly and rejoined his infantry on the 5th. On the 
6th at two in the afternoon he found himself face to face with 
the patriot army on the plain of Junin and Bolivar at once sent 
Nicochea ahead who led 900 cavalry. The ground was so 
contracted by a hill on one side and a marsh on the other, that 
at 5 o'clock Necochea had only two squadrons of Colombian 
horse on the plain when he was attacked by the whole of the 
royalist cavalry, 1300 strong, led by Canterac himself. The 
Colombian lancers received the charge with great steadiness, 
but were driven back upon their supports which were still en- 
tangled in the defile. The royalist horse greatly disordered 
by their rapid advance, entered the defile with the fugitives 
when Necochea, pierced by seven lance wounds, was trampled 
under foot and made prisoner. Colonel Suarez, with the first 
squadron of Peruvian hussars, had drawn his men into an 
angle of the marsh and, letting the rout pass by, charged the 
pursuers in the rear. The fugitives were rallied by Miller 
who led them again to the charge and drove the royalists from 
the field. In forty-five minutes the affair was over and not a 
shot had been fired. The royalists lost 350 dead, 80 prisoners, 
and 400 saddled horses. The patriots lost 150 between killed 
and wounded and rescued Necochea. The fugitive royalists 
took shelter under the fire of their infantry which at once re- 
treated. Such was the celebrated action of Junin which broke 
the prestige of the royalist arms in Peru and prepared the way 
for the final triumph. Canterac who was greatly disturbed by 
this disaster, evacuated the region and retreated so rapidly that 
in two days he was more than 100 miles from the scene of ac- 
tion. Nor did he stop until he had marched 500 miles from 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 393 



Junin, losing on the way between 2000 and 3000 by desertion. 
Canterac, not being pursued, had fled from his own shadow. 

As summer, the rainy season in the mountains, approached 
Bolivar returned to Lima, leaving the command of the army 
to General Sucre. Viceroy La Serna made strenuous prepa- 
rations in the coming months, and united near Cuzco an army 
of nearly 10,000 soldiers to enter upon a new campaign. For 
he bade General Valdes come from Upper Peru, who marched 
about 800 miles in one month and, picking up in his march 
various detachments of soldiers, came to unite with Canterac 
near Cuzco October, 1824. The army was divided into three 
divisions of infantry under Canterac, Valdes, and Moret, and 
one of cavalry which La Serna himself commanded ; they had 
10 guns. To fight the royalists Sucre had only 7000 men with 
two guns ; the other artillery he lost before the final battle be- 
gan. 

BATTLE AND CAPITULATION OF AYACUCHO, DECEMBER C/TH, 1824. 

La Serna maneuvered to cut off Sucre from his base at 
Jauja, moving in a semicircle of which the patriots held the cen- 
ter. Sucre was thus enabled to concentrate his forces and to 
choose for himself the field of battle. He retreated ; but 
November 24th at the river Pampas he found that the enemy 
by forced marches was there before him; the river lay be- 
tween them. Three days were spent in maneuvers and then 
Sucre crossed the river ; but December 2nd he found the 
heights of Matoro in his front already occupied by the roya- 
lists. Wheeling rapidly to his right he passed the gorge to- 
wards the valley of Acrocos ; however, his rearguard under 
Lara was overtaken in the pass by Valdes, of which one Co- 
lombian battalion was cut to pieces and two more were dis- 
persed and lost a gun December 3rd. The further advance 
of the royalists was checked by the main body stationed on the 
height beyond and the two armies encamped for the night on 
opposite sides of the gorge. 



394 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Next day Sucre gained the valley of Acrocos and offered 
battle ; but La Serna, anxious to cut him off his base at Jauja, 
marched round the left flank of the patriots and again gained 
their rear, cutting all the bridges and closing the denies to pre- 
vent their retreat. The people of the valley rose in favor of 
the royalists. A patriot column, marching from Jauja to join 
Sucre, was driven back ; his sick were killed in the hospitals ; 
he had lost 600 men in the retreat and all his artillery save two 
guns. For the patriots it was now victory or death. Sucre 
drew up his army in the valley of Ayacucho, his flanks resting 
on the mountain ranges to the east and to the west. Cordova 
commanded on the right, Miller in the center, and La Mar on 
the left ; a reserve of three battalions was commanded by Lara. 

On the morning of Thursday, December 9th, 1824, the 
sun rose gloriously over the peaks of the eastern cordillera. 
Sucre galloped from end to end of his line, telling his men that 
on their valor that day hung the destinies of South America. 
At nine in the morning the royalists descended from the heights 
to the attack. At ten o'clock they debouched upon the plain, 
the left and center advancing in mass, led by the viceroy him- 
self. The royalist right under Valdes was the first to engage 
and drove in the patriot skirmishers ; but the infantry stood 
firm and a battalion of Colombians was sent to their aid. Su- 
cre then ordered Cordova to charge with the right wing, sup- 
ported by Miller's cavalry. The young gallant Colombian 
general who was only 25 years old, in front of his troops ex- 
claimed: "Soldiers, arms with determination and steps of vic- 
tors!" and advanced rapidly in two columns, throwing his 
division with great impetuosity upon the royalist center. Eight 
squadrons of royalist cavalry charged him, but were driven 
back by the Colombian horse under Silva. Monet whose 
division had not yet been engaged, then came to the assistance 
of the royalist left center, but was attacked by the reserve 
under Lara and driven back in confusion. Three more roy- 
alist squadrons were then thrown forward ; but these were 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 395 



exterminated by the Colombian lancers. Viceroy La Serna 
strove in vain to rally his disordered soldiery; but he was 
borne from his horse with six wounds and was made prisoner 
with more than 1000 of his men. 

Meanwhile Valdes had turned the left flank of the pa- 
triots which was commanded by La Mar and which began to 
give way, when the Colombian battalion came to its assistance, 
followed by the Peruvian patriot hussars and the Argentine 
grenadiers led by Miller, who charged with such fury that the 
royalist infantry under Valdes was thrown into confusion and 
all their guns were captured. — It was one o'clock. Valdes 
in despair sat down on a rock, waiting for death. His officers 
forced him away, back to the heights where many of the roy- 
alist generals were already assembled with such troops as they 
could collect. Canterac undertook to negotiate with Sucre 
and to prepare for capitulation. The patriots held the victory 
in their hands and the viceroy's power was crushed ; the war 
of independence was at an end and emancipation consummated. 
In the words of a poet: 

"We passed a thousand years 
In one hour at Ayacucho." 

Ayacucho is known in South America as the battle of gen- 
erals. Fourteen Spanish generals with all their subordinate 
officers gave up their swords this day. The royalists lost more 
than 2000 killed and wounded and nearly 3000 prisoners ; the 
rest took flight in horrid dispersion. The patriots had 300 
killed and 600 wounded. Sucre who for this victory was 
called Grand Marshal of Ayacucho, offered the conquered an 
honorable capitulation which they accepted and signed. Vice- 
roy La Serna, Canterac, Valdes and the other royalist leaders 
promised to leave the country. Sucre, on his part, guaranteed 
them their lives and obliged himself to send them to Europe 
at the expense of the independent government. 

Ayacucho crowned the joint work of San Martin and Bo- 



396 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



livar. The patriot victories of Chile and those of Colombia 
were joined by the golden link, forged at Ayacucho by the 
genius of Sucre. 

LAST SPANISH RESISTANCE. 

The victory of Ayacucho made the resistance of the Span- 
iards everywhere impossible. In Upper Peru still remained a 
force of 4000 Spaniards under General Olanyeta who did not 
want to recognize the capitulation of Ayacucho. However 
the cities Chuquisaca, La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba 
declared themselves in favor of independence. Sucre crossed 
the mountains and arrived at Potosi while General Arenales 
advanced from the south. A large part of Olanyeta's troops 
left him and the rest mutinied. He was fighting with the muti- 
neers in Tusumla when Sucre arrived and, yielding to him, he 
surrendered. The other royalist leaders asked Sucre to be 
included in the capitulation of Ayacucho. Thus the Spanish 
dominion in Upper Peru (Bolivia) terminated (April, 1825) ; 
its independence had already been declared by General Santa 
Cruz August 7th, 1823. 

In Callao, Lima's port, Colonel Rodil likewise did not rec- 
ognize the capitulation of Ayacucho and resisted with great 
tenacity the attacks of a Colombian division and of the pa- 
triot naval squadron. During thirteen months of daily com- 
bats and much suffering, hunger and diseases extinguished 
.the lives of 6000 persons, among whom was ex-President 
Marshal Torre Tagle. He had again embraced the cause of 
royalism and had with other royalists sought refuge in the 
Callao fort which had become a gathering place of the Penin- 
sulars, but now became their death-trap. Rodil, losing all hope 
of assistance, at last surrendered the forts and capitulated 
January 22nd, 1826. Callao had been the last Spanish strong- 
hold of the powerful Peruvian viceroyship which had fallen 
into utter ruins since the arrival of San Martin's expedition 
in 1820. 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 397 



ORGANIZATION OF THE PERUVIAN REPUBLIC, 1825 TO 1 827. 

Since the independence of Peru had been made sure by 
the Colombian victory of Ayacucho, this country was subject- 
ed to Colombian guardianship. Bolivar who was at the head 
of the government, called a congress of representatives to Li- 
ma who conferred upon him the titles Liberator and Father of 
the country. Besides this, those representatives did not do 
more than to prolong the dictatorship of the Colombian leader, 
which showed the inability of the Peruvians to do legislative 
work and coincided with their incompetence to manage their 
own political affairs. Unfortunately Bolivar entertained the 
purpose of governing the liberated countries himself, where- 
fore he justly encountered much opposition; his pretensions 
were apt to cause great difficulties and disturbances. 

The Liberator purposed at this time to organize the Up- 
per Peruvian provinces so as to constitute an independent re- 
public ; but the rebellion of Paez in Venezuela and the dissen- 
tions of New Granada called him for the present to Colombia. 
Having appointed a provisional government and leaving a Co- 
lombian division of troops and with it the germs of revolt, 
Bolivar left Peru. On the second anniversary of Ayacucho 
a constitution was promulgated in Peru, which established a 
lifelong presidency and by which the minds of the people were 
still more irritated, who were already prejudiced against Bo- 
livar. The very Colombian division which Bolivar had left 
in Lima, deposed the provisional government he had appoint- 
ed. General Santa Cruz was made president of a new pro- 
visional government and another congress was called which 
laid the last constitution aside and put the one of 1823 into 
effect. Then General La Mar was elected president of Peru, 
the provisional government having been abolished, and Peru 
became a free and complete republic, free from Spanish dom- 
ination not simply, but from Colombia's disgustive tutelage as 
well. Peru entered now, January 28th, 1827, upon the enjoy- 



398 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ment of her own sweet self-government which, however, 
caused many dissensions and disseminated much bitterness. 
The Colombian troops had to withdraw from Peruvian soil. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA, 1825 TO 1827. 

After the victory of Ayacucho a large section of the for- 
mer presidency of Upper Peru declared itself in favor of inde- 
pendence — of separation not simply from Spain, but from 
Peru and the Argentine Republic also — each of the last two 
having purposed to annex it. General Sucre who was in La 
Paz decreed the assembling of a congress which should de- 
cide the future of the country. Months later that congress 
met in Chuquisaca and declared August 6th, 1825, the ab- 
solute independence of that territory. The assembly named 
the new republic Bolivia .after the name of Bolivar and elected 
him its first president with the title of protector. The liberator 
accepted the presidency and, having returned to Lima, left for 
Chuquisaca, the capital of the new-born republic. During the 
few months he stayed in Bolivia he decreed far reaching re- 
forms. Somewhat later, however, he had again to return to 
Peru and to Colombia, leaving Sucre to manage the affairs. 
From Lima he sent to the Bolivian assembly the constitution 
which he had promised and in which he established, in accord- 
ance with his political ideas, a life-long presidency. That in- 
strument having been adopted by congress, Grand Marshal 
Sucre was elected president. Chuquisaca, the capital, was 
named after Sucre; thus Sucre became the capital of Bolivia. 
The new president who since Bolivar's departure had exer- 
cised the highest power, continued, with the aid of congress, 
the work of regenerating the country. But Bolivar's absence 
in Colombia and the changes brought about in the government 
of Peru, enabled La Mar and Santa Cruz who were disgusted 
with the Colombians, to undermine Sucre's position and 
authority. The very Colombian troops who had been retained 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 399 



in Bolivia revolted, noble and generous Sucre was wounded 
and made prisoner in a mutiny. 

The Peruvian government took advantage of this unfor- 
tunate event and ordered General Gamarra, a. former royalist 
officer, to invade Bolivia at the head of 5000 men. In the 
treaty of Piquiza it was stipulated that the Colombians leave 
Bolivia, that an extraordinary congress meet which shall re- 
ceive Sucre's resignation and designate the time when Gamar- 
ra shall withdraw his troops. Previously, however, the ex- 
penses of the Peruvian perfidious intervention must be paid. 
The desired congress having met, Sucre sent it his resignation, 
took leave from Bolivia forever, and went to Colombia. The 
same congress elected, August, 1828, General Santa Cruz pres- 
ident who was absent in Chile at the time and who later on 
played an interesting role in the events of those countries. 

LAST YEARS OF BOLIVAR AND SUCRE AND THE DISSOLUTION 
yn OF THE COLOMBIAN CONFEDERATION. 



We have at various times heard the question asked in 
the United States whether a number of South American re- 
publics might not come together to organize into a larger re- 
public and under one central government. Such questioners 
will please read this article carefully and for the purpose of 
finding an answer. 

The northern countries which had been liberated by one 
and the same man, by Simon Bolivar, who had been titled 
their liberator by their congresses and was looked upon as 
father of those countries, were most favorably situated to 
form a confederation. And, indeed, it was the great libera- 
tor's high ideal and life work to realize such a confederation ; 
still more, Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador had consti- 
tuted themselves as such and were so governed for almost 
eleven years. But the Colombian Confederation was dis- 
solved, as this article will show. — The La Plata countries are 
also so situated that they could be controlled by one central 




400 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



government; but we have learned how each country fought 
for its own independence and self-government. Chile and 
Argentina are separated by the natural barriers of the majes- 
tic Andes. Finally, a coalition of Bolivia and Peru was 
severed by armed forces,\as we shall learn. Thus we can not 
discern any occasion that might lead to the unifaction of South 
American republics. Moreover, the most of the ten republics 
of the southern continent are not small, but extensive, as our 
statistical reports will show. 

After Simon Bolivar's return from Bolivia and Peru to 
Bogata in 1826 the great liberator could announce in his mes- 
sage to the Colombian congress : "Colombians, it is five years 
since I left this capital to march at the head of the liberating 
army. Starting from the banks of the Cauca we reached the 
heights of Potosi. A million of Colombians and two sister 
republics, have obtained their independence under the shadow 
of our banners. The world of Columbus has ceased to be 
Spanish" (November 23rd, 1826). The glorious fame of 
Bolivar was at its height and produced an enthusiasm which 
approached to fanaticism. To his honor statues and monu- 
ments were erected ; he was called father and founder of the 
Colombian Confederation ; and his prestige was extraordinary 
even in foreign countries. His name symbolized for the Eu- 
ropeans the entire Spanish American revolution and was in 
the mouths of the people as that of a second Washington. And 
can he not be favorably compared with our American hero? 
Bolivar was one of the most celebrated military genii the world 
has known ; his achievements rank with those of the greatest 
generals. He, however, was not the politician that was needed 
in his times and circumstances ; his personal aim brought him 
into disrepute and caused his star to go down. One historian 
puts it thus: "As a military leader Bolivar is much greater 
than the hero of the North American revolution ; but he can 
not be compared to Washington in his love to the republic or 
in his respect to the laws." Fighting the federal ideas which 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 401 



predominated in Venezuela, he made himself suspicious to the 
federals. His ideas of centralization and unifaction became 
fatal, because they led to absorption and despotism. Bolivar 
was accused of aspiring to a crown, but falsely ; this false ac- 
cusation embittered his life. He stood on the constitution of 
Cucuta and was re-elected president of the confederation in 
1826 and in 1828. — It was believed that the constitution had 
become the foundation of a powerful republic whose wealth, 
fortune and prosperity would make it a rival with the great 
North American republic. How groundless a belief ! For if 
the Colombian Republic had the constitution and even had the 
soil to rival with the United States, it did not have the people, 
the people of Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic blood who have pro- 
duced our prosperity, wealth, and fortune. 

Very soon, however, the flattering adulations were heard 
to be ridiculed and the star of the liberator was seen to de- 
cline. Civil war broke out and resulted in the dismemberment 
of the Colombian Confederation and in the formation of the 
three republics : New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador ( 1829 
to 1831). As long as the battles of independence were fought 
the confederation had existence ; it was the work of Bolivar 
and his fame held it together. But when the independence 
was consummated, feelings of separation, of dissolution arose 
and rapidly developed into desires and volitions. Caracas and 
about all Venezuela declared that only danger and the glory of 
battles had united the peoples and that there was no other tie 
that kept them together. 

The year 1829 brought a war of Colombia and Peru. The 
main cause was the old question : "Who shall possess the prov- 
ince of Guayaquil." The battle of Tarqui was fought February 
26th, in which the Colombians who were commanded by gal- 
lant Marshal Sucre, were victorious, the Peruvians leaving 
2000 including the prisoners on the field. Towards the close 
of that year, however, the confederation approached dangerous 
grounds ; for the idea of separation had spread far and struck 

26 



402 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



its roots deep. Some wanted the dissolution to take place 
without bloodshed, while others demanded it under all circum- 
stances. At last Paez who now was Venezuela's supreme di- 
rector, went so far as to threaten Colombia and Bolivar with 
war. The congress of Bogata named a commission which 
should study the situation and formulate articles that might 
effect an understanding with Venezuela; however the princi- 
ple: "The confederation is one and indivisible," should be 
maintained. Marshal Sucre and Dr. Estevez were commis- 
sioned to take the articles of peace to Venezuela. A few days 
later it was learned that Paez had refused even to receive the 
commissioners, had demanded the separation of his country, 
and had closed the doors to negotiations. The position Paez 
had taken in Caracas, Florez took in Quito ; for he, being the 
leader in the south, had the separation of Ecuador on his pro- 
gram. Bolivar who was the founder of the Colombian Con- 
federation and who was most deeply interested in it, now ap- 
peared like the obstacles in the rising tide. For this reason in 
all parts of the confederation the opinion prevailed that the 
liberator should resign his position and executive duties. Even 
a new junta of Bolivar's friends agreed in the opinion that he 
should not be president any longer and passed a resolution to 
that effect. This resolution was mortifying to Bolivar; for 
it meant his abdication, it meant his banishment, his departure 
from his beloved Colombia; and he was too poor to leave. 
When Bolivar had entered upon his military career he had 
been a millionaire ; but the war had swallowed up his fortune 
and now he could not have paid for his transit to another coun- 
try. Congress then unanimously voted to pay him the pension 
which the law prescribed. And, when neither Colombia nor 
Venezuela had room for the great hero, it became Ecuador's 
enviable honor to offer him hospitality. 

May 4th, 1830, J. Mosquera was elected president and 
General D. Gayecedo vice-president of the confederation, 
whereby Bolivar was excluded. They were good men, but not 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 403 



the men who could control the situation through which the 
country then passed. There were many opposing factions 
and many men who were accustomed to a life of war and not 
to the occupations of peace. We consequently read of strife, 
of intrigues, of revolutionary attempts, but of no guiding hand, 
of no controlling authority. — After Marshal Sucre had re- 
turned from his fruitless mission in Venezuela he was desir- 
ous to assist in the south and left Bogata to go to Quito. Near 
Venta in the Berruecos mountains the Marshal of Ayacucho 
was waylaid and assassinated June 4th, 1830. The horrible 
crime had been planned ; the criminals were never discovered. 

The liberator who had been ill for some time waited on 
the coast at Santa Marta for the English frigate Shannon 
which should take him to England, and he grew worse while 
there. In the meantime he was witness of the revolts and 
combats of his countrymen, for several colonels raised the ban- 
ner of war against the confederation. The congress of Vene- 
zuela asked for Bolivar's expulsion and September 22nd, 1830, 
it accepted the constitution that made that country an independ- 
ent republic; Ecuador did the same thing almost at the same 
time. Thus we see Bolivar's great work, the Colombian Con- 
federation, dissolved before his own demise. 

From the coast Bolivar was taken to a country place to 
breathe pure air. Here on the quinta of San Pedro he dic- 
tated his last will which concludes thus : "My last wishes are 
for the happiness of my country. If my death contributes to 
the ceasing of factions and to the consolidation of union, I 
shall go calmly down into the grave." In the midst of party 
agitations, of preparations for war, of fights of the ambitious 
there was a moment when the noise subsided and the passions 
ceased, a moment of hush, — it was when the word went from 
mouth to mouth : "The liberator is dead." At one o'clock in 
the afternoon of December 17th, 1830, the great Bolivar 
breathed his last. As time rolls on the fame of Simon Bolivar 
increases ; for he was one of America's greatest sons. 



404 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE OF BRAZIL, 
1807 to 183 1. 

THE FRENCH INVADE PORTUGAL. 

The majestic Portuguese colony of Brazil, at the begin- 
ning of the last century, was in a similar manner induced by 
European complications to revolt, as the Spanish colonies had 
been. In 1807 Sir John, son of Mary of Braganza, governed 
as regent in Portugal during his mother's insanity who was 
queen. Drawn into an alliance with England that country 
was threatened with war by the French ; for when Napoleon 
resolved to blockade Europe against England, Sir John re- 
fused to break Portugal's relation with her ally. Therefore, 
Napoleon sent a considerable army under the command of 
Marshal Junot to occupy Portugal. This is the army which 
made that detour to Madrid and brought Spain into trouble. 
While the French entered Portugal without difficulty, the court 
of Lisbon fled to Brazil, leaving their country without govern- 
ment and resources and delivering it into the hands of the in- 
vading army. The royal family, the council of state, the min- 
isters and principal lords of Portugal with their servants and 
treasures, 13,000 persons in all, set sail for America in four- 
teen war and many merchant vessels November 29th, 1807. 

THE PORTUGUESE COURT IN BRAZIL. 

After two months of navigation the royal expedition land- 
ed at Bahia, Brazil, and soon after Regent John continued his 
journey to Rio de Janeiro where he was proclaimed sovereign 
of Brazil March 7th, 1808. He at once began to promote use- 
ful reforms which gave vigorous impulse to the progress of 
the Brazilian colony — her ports were opened to the commerce 
of England and of other friendly nations; libraries, museums, 
academies, and other educational institutions were founded ; a 
royal press was established on which the first periodicals of 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 405 



Brazil were printed ; immigration was encouraged and a bank 
established which was, however, monopolized by the crown. 
Brazil could then, in fact, consider herself an independent 
state, as the country was not governed by a foreign power. 

With the efficient assistance of the English who forced the 
French out of Portugal and entered victoriously into Spain to 
clear that country, too, of the invaders, the Portuguese again 
established their home government. However, the regent 
seemed to prefer to stay in Brazil and wished to raise that 
colony to "the dignity, pre-eminence, and rank of a kingdom." 
The death of insane Queen Mary which occurred months later 
did not produce any change in the management of public af- 
fairs, the regent continuing to govern, now as king with the 
name of John VI. We have learned how King John, in 1816, 
sent General Lecor to Uruguay and how the war that was then 
waged became the cause of Brazil's war with the Argentine 
Republic nine years later. 

REVOLUTION IN PERNAMBUCO, 1817. 

In spite of King John's good government and of the easy 
victories that were won in Uruguay a revolution broke out irr 
the north of Brazil. The luxuries of the court and the fav- 
ors that were conceded to the Portuguese lords, irritated the 
Brazilian Creoles. They had learned to know the institutions 
of free nations through their relations with England and the 
United States, and the examples of the Spanish colonies which 
at that time were in a deadly struggle to attain republican 
forms of government, stimulated them and matured the spirit 
of revolt in Brazil. 

In Pernambuco a secret society had been organized for the 
purpose of promoting the establishment of a republican gov- 
ernment and was directed by D. J. Martins, a successful mer- 
chant who had formerly lived a long time in England. The 
governor of that province gave order to arrest several sus- 
pects, one of whom, J. B. Lima, who was captain of the artil- 



406 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



lery, instead of giving himself up as prisoner, killed his com- 
mander in the presence of the troops and urged these to de- 
clare themselves in open rebellion against the king's govern- 
ment. The revolution that had already been prepared broke 
out in the city. The governor was forced to surrender and 
was sent to Rio de Janeiro, while the revolutionists organized 
a provisional republican government in Pernambuco whose 
head became Martins himself. The movement spread to the 
northern provinces Parahibo and Rio Grande which also gave 
themselves provisional governments ; but it did not strike 
roots in the south. 

The governor of Bahia, count of Arcos, a former viceroy 
and afterwards minister of King John, sent a squadron and an 
army of 5000 men against Pernambuco. Though the patriots 
had made but slight preparations for the defense, and were 
soon discouraged, yet Martins marched with a force against 
the royalists. The republican army was easily defeated by 
General Mello de la Cerda and abandoned artillery and bag- 
gage. Martins was captured, some revolutionary leaders fled, 
and the royalists occupied Pernambuco May 20th, 1817. The 
court punished the patriots that fell into their hands severely ; 
many were put into prison, while Martins and twelve com- 
panions were executed. The revolutionary sentiments, how- 
ever, were not exterminated. 

THE KING'S RETURN TO PORTUGAL, 1 82 1. 

After the expulsion of the French, Portugal was submit- 
ted to a despotic government and was delivered into the hands 
of her English protectors. The Portuguese were not satis- 
fied with the stay of the king in Brazil and they saw with dis- 
pleasure the colony becoming Portugal's main possession. 
Thus it came to pass that the liberal revolution of Spain in the 
beginning of 1820 found prepared conditions in Portugal and 
that it spread. The people organized a provisional junta of 
government which was to call an assembly of representatives 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 407 



who should frame a constitution and limit the royal despotism. 
— The report of these occurrences was received with enthu- 
siasm in Brazil and caused anew the former rivalry between 
Brazilians and Portuguese. In the provinces of Bahia and 
Para the people organized provisional governing juntas of a 
constitutional regime. In Rio de Janeiro the Portuguese gar- 
rison gathered in the public plaza and demanded that the king 
promise upon oath to observe the constitution which had been 
formulated by the assembly of Portugal. King John VI. con- 
sented to what they demanded February 21st, 1821. 

The joy of the Brazilians was, however, not of long dura- 
tion. Simultaneously with the ordinance to elect in Brazil 
deputies to the Court of Lisbon, John VI. announced his res- 
olution to follow the request of the Court to return to Portu- 
gal. The people of Rio de Janeiro, assembled on the plaza 
on election day, tried to impede the departure of the king, and 
demanded that the forts of the harbor do not permit the royal 
squadron to leave. Prince Dom Pedro, however, at the head 
of Portuguese troops, dispersed the Brazilian voters. The 
city had not yet recovered from its consternation when four 
days after the riot John VI. sailed from Brazil's hospitable 
shores to far away Portugal. Dom Pedro, a youth of 23 
years, intelligent and sympathetic, stayed behind to act as 
regent of Brazil. His parting father had told him in prophe- 
tic words : "Peter, when Brazil wants to separate from Por- 
tugal, as is likely she will do, then you must take the crown 
before another adventurer seizes it." 

PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

The Courts of Lisbon had resolved to terminate the kind 
of relation in which Brazil stood to the homeland and there- 
fore had demanded the return of the royal family to Portugal. 
In consequence of this resolution they now advanced meas- 
ures which should re-establish the former colonial regime. 
They suppressed some institutions in Brazil which John VI. 



408 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



had established and even resolved that the prince regent also 
return to Portugal. As the Brazilians were alarmed thereby 
they brought a petition before Dom Pedro, soliciting his stay 
in Brazil. His answer was : "As it is for the welfare and for 
the general felicity of the nation, tell the people that I shall 
stay" (January 9th, 1822). 

Not comprehending the gravity of the situation the Lis- 
bon Courts continued to tyrannize the Brazilians, all their 
measures having the sole tendency of increasing the irritation 



in the colony and of preparing the people for absolute inde- 
pendence. The regent meanwhile surrounded himself with 
the most resolute patriots and became the object of enthusias- 
tic manifestations of sympathy. The municipality, the peo- 
ple, and the troops of Janeiro saluted him with the title Per- 
petual Defender of Brazil. The Portuguese courts, in turn, 
declared the regent's acts null; the governing juntas which rec- 
ognized his authority, criminals, and his ministers and advis- 
ers, traitors. Dom Pedro was not disposed to tolerate these 
abuses. When he heard of them he was on the banks of the 
rivulet Ipiranga in the province of Sao Paulo and right there 
and then, September 7th, 1822, he declared Brazil absolutely 




DOM PEDRO I. 
Emancipator and First Emperor of Brazil 
t 1834 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 409 



independent and free. This act of Dom Pedro is known in 
history as "the cry of Ipiranga." When eight days later he 
entered Rio de Janeiro and appeared in the theatre with a rib- 
bon on his arm on which one could read the words : Independ- 
ence or Death, the people hailed him with enthusiasm and 
applauded him with frenzy. On his birthday — October 12th, 
1822 — he was proclaimed constitutional emperor with the 
name Dom Pedro I. and soon after his solemn coronation took 
place. The true instigator of all the acts that prepared Bra- 
zil's independence was the renowned /. B. Andrada, minister 
and counselor of Dom Pedro, a man distinguished through 
his scientific learning, his elevated and firm character, and his 
political principles. 

\ CAMPAIGN TO BAHIA AND THE NORTH, 1 823. 

The\ independence of Brazil was thus effected without 
any war with the mother country. Though the Portuguese 
Court did not make any exertion to reconquer the colony, some 
Portuguese troops remained still in Bahia. To occupy that 
city Dom Pedro I. sent a division which was commanded by 
Labutet, that Frenchman who had assisted the New Granadian 
patriots in the beginning of their revolution, and which was 
embarked on a fleet that was under the orders of the celebrated 
English sailor Thomas Cochrane, the hero of the Pacific, who 
after his rupture with San Martin in Peru, had come to Bra- 
zil, seeking occupation. Commanding eight poorly equipped 
Brazilian vessels, Cochrane sailed from Rio de Janeiro to fight 
the Portuguese fleet at Bahia which consisted of thirteen war 
vessels with 198 guns. 

The new Brazilian admiral blockaded Bahia and soon 
hunger did its work in the city. It was rumored Cochrane 
had fire-ships constructed to launch against the Portuguese 
squadron. This rumor caused great alarm and when General 
Labutet's army attacked the city and took it, the Portuguese 
marines believed themselves doomed and resolved to leave. 



410 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Having embarked their army and loaded 70 vessels with val- 
uable merchandises, they left, sailing towards Lisbon. Lord 
Cochrane pursued them, making rich spoils and returned to 
attack the town of Maranyon in the north, which he captured. 
After these successes the war continued only in a few regions 
in the northern provinces and soon the authority of Dom Pe- 
dro I. was recognized in all parts of Brazil. In six months 
Cochrane had carried out one of the most successful campaigns 
in America. He had taken 120 vessels, all told, from the en- 
emy, whose cargoes had an immeasurable value, and he and 
Labutet had captured about half the Portuguese army. 

POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE EMPIRE, 1823-24. 

Why could a monarchical government continue so long 
in Brazil? During the thirteen years in which John VI. had 
governed the colony, his good and progressive administration 
had made the monarchical regime pleasing to the people. To 
this must be added the circumstance that it had been the hered- 
itary prince who had proclaimed the independence of the 
country, the prince who enjoyed high prestige for the sake of 
his virtues and talents. These facts strengthened the consti- 
tutional monarchy in the public opinion and removed to a dis- 
tance the republican ways which the Spanish colonies had just 
accepted. 

A congress having been called to Rio de Janeiro, Dom 
Pedro I. opened its sessions and soon found himself placed 
between two parties — the moderates who were in majority and 
the progressives who supported the more liberal policies of 
the energetic minister J. B. Andrada and of his two brothers. 
The emperor had to take a stand and he decided in favor of 
the moderates, whereupon the Andradas became more ener- 
getic, even violent and a menace to public order. Resolved to 
act with precision, Dom Pedro I. dissolved the congress with 
the aid of troops, expelled six deputies among whom were the 
three Andradas, and sent them to France, granting them, how- 



REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE 



411 



ever, a pension He promised to call a new constituent as- 
sembly ; but instead of this assembly, the emperor, after a 
few days, named a council of state consisting of ten members 
who discussed and then accepted the project of a constitution 
which he himself had laid before them. The constitution hav- 
ing been approved by the municipalities of all the towns, the 
high public functionaries and the emperor promised upon sol- 
emn oath, March 25th, 1824, to stand upon it and adhere to 
it. This constitution was in vogue in the Brazilian monarchy 
two-thirds of last century. 

SECOND REVOLT OF PERNAMBUCO, 1 824 AND 1 825. 

The Portuguese government sent a diplomat to Rio de 
Janeiro on the mission of negotiating in favor of the union 
of the two crowns. Although Dom Pedro I. declared his un- 
willingness to receive any proposition without the previous 
recognition of independence, yet the commander of the Per- 
nambuco garrison, M. Carvalho, accused him of entertaining 
the idea of union and of thinking of delivering Brazil again 
into the hands of the Portuguese. Disavowing the imperial 
authority Carvalho invited the northern provinces to organize 
themselves into a league. Such a league was actually formed 
and was named Confederation of the Ecuator July 24th, 1824. 
Forced to make use of arms again, the emperor dispatched 
against Pernambuco a part of the squadron with an army un- 
der Lord Cochrane's command. The Pernambucans defend- 
ed themselves heroically, but were defeated and the Confede- 
ration of the Ecuator was dissolved. 

For the purpose of re-establishing commercial relations 
with her former colony, relations by which both countries 
might benefit, Portugal was disposed to recognize Brazil's in- 
dependence, having been urged by the British government to 
do so. Acting thus in plain opposition to Spain's stupid ob- 
stinacy regarding her lost possessions, King John VI. sent a 
plenipotentiary to Rio de Janeiro and entered with the emper- 



412 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



or, his son, upon a treaty of peace in which he recognized the 
independence of Brazil August 29th, 1825. 

LAST YEARS OF DOM PEDRO I., 1 826 TO 1 834. 

King John's death occurred in 1826, whereupon Portugal 
offered her crown to Dom Pedro I. He, however, declined 
to accept the offer and suggested that his daughter Mary of 
Glory, a child of seven years, inherit the same. She became 
heiress and on account of her minority, ambitious and im- 
perious Dom Michael, youngest brother of Dom Pedro, was 
appointed regent of Portugal. 

The first years of the constitutional government of Brazil 
had been stormy; for the unfortunate war with the Argenti- 
nos and the consequent loss of Uruguay had increased the 
anarchical agitations of some political factions. Tired of that 
fight and losing his ambition to control, the emperor finally 
abdicated and gave the Brazilian crown to his son who was 
then only five years old. Bearing the name of his father, the 
son was crowned Dom Pedro II. April 7th, 1831. On the 
same day a council of regency was appointed which should 
govern the country during the minority of the young emperor. 

Dom Pedro I. then left for Europe to fight his brother 
Dom Michael, who had usurped the Portuguese throne of his 
daughter Mary of Glory. Assisted by the French and the 
English he defeated his treacherous brother and re-established 
his daughter on the throne of Lisbon in 1833. Dom Pedro I. 
died in the following year. 



PERIOD VII 

THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 
1820 to 1912 



413 



414 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




THE REPUBLIG OF CHILE. 

1820 to 1912. 



I. EIGHT YEARS OF LIBERAL ENDEAVORS. 
1823 to 1831. 

Integrity and Organization of the Republic. 

With the battle of Maipo the war of independence had 
come to an end and with a strong hand O'Higgins had kept 
the peace. His abdication became the beginning of an agi- 
tated and confused period of endeavors to organize politically 
and socially. The leaders did not yet clearly know what they 
wanted ; they learned by agitating and trying, by succeeding 
and failing. Ramon Freire was chosen successor to O'Hig- 
gins by the plenipotentiaries of the three principal provinces 
Coquimbo, Santiago, and Concepcion. After his predecessor 
there was in Chile not a man of more renown, not a more 
famous soldier than Ramon Freire. He had fought in al- 
most all the battles of Chilean independence, always distin- 
guishing himself through valor and gallantry. On the side of 
O'Higgins he had penetrated the Spanish lines when the few 
surviving patriots left the ruins of Rancagua. He had led a 
division of the army of the Andes across the mountains and 
was one of the victors of Maipo. Immediately afterwards he 
had continued a stubborn warfare in the south of the country, 
whereby he gained a brilliant prestige. Freire was not a 
politician of great sagacity for he was timid and vacillating; 
but he always was a good citizen, a man sound at heart, a gov- 
ernor just and unselfish. 

415 



416 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Freire' s Administrative Labors. 

Not having made previous promises, the new director 
initiated a conciliatory government, dedicating himself to the 
organization of the country. In the first year the public li- 
brary was reorganized, it was decreed to open a school in 
every convent, and a law was passed which made the slaves 
absolutely free ; this law was drafted and urged on by Joseph 
M. Infante. Freire called a constituent congress which met 
in 1823 and adopted the constitution which Dr. John Eganya 
had formulated ; it, however, proved to be entirely impracti- 
cable. For this reason Freire managed without a constitution, 
i. e. he conducted the administration dictatorially, to which the 
conservative legislative congress gave its consent. One of 
the endeavors of the government was to bring the navy in 
readiness. Under the command of Vice-admiral Blanco En- 
calada it was sent to Peru to assist Bolivar and the Peruvian 
patriots, where it blockaded the ports of the viceroy which 
were still in possession of the royalists. 

Church Affairs. 

The independence of Chile had not a more embittered 
enemy than the bishop of Santiago, J. S. Rodriguez, who was 
a royalist at heart. Already by a decree of O'Higgins he had 
been released of his episcopacy and expelled from Chile. Af- 
ter an exile of four years he had returned and was as much a 
royalist as ever. As he was constantly disposed to contradict 
the new political order he was one night seized forcibly, taken 
to Valparaiso, and on a government boat sent to Mexico. 

To readjust the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church that 
had been disturbed by the revolution and to arrange ecclesias- 
tical matters, O'Higgins had sent the patriotic clergyman, J. I. 
Cienfuegos, to Rome who had returned after some time in 
company with the apostolic vicar, Muzi, a plenipotentiary sent 
by the pope, his secretary, and a Roman canonist. The latter 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 417 



was the priest Mastai Ferreti, who later became Pope Pius IX. 
That commission was received with suspicion by the managers 
of Chile's political relations ; for they believed that it involved 
secret plans of political importance and had been sent at the 
suggestion of Ferdinand VII. to exploit the American affairs 
and to initiate steps towards the return of the country into 
Spanish submission. Vicar Muzi, therefore, could not reach 
an understanding with the Freire administration. Even the 
conservative politicians looked with distrust at Muzi and after 
the lapse of eight months he had to return without having 
accomplished anything. He, however, suppressed some feast- 
days, conceded the pardon of the papal bull for eating meat 
on the days of abstinence, and facilitated the secularization 
of regular religionists. The convents, having already fallen 
from their former efficiency into decay, were forsaken by the 
monks who preferred to secularize. Indeed, the lives and 
habits of the regular ecclesiastics had become degenerate and 
the government enforced regulations tending to reform. One 
decree which became noisy in its application, prohibited per- 
sons below twenty-five years to practice religious professions. 
Another decree suspended some convents, reduced friars to 
ordinary lives in the cloisters, and deprived them of their vast 
landed estates. These were sold by the state which, however, 
accepted the obligation to give each religionist an income for 
his support. Thus did the state reform the cloisters. 

Party Agitations. 

In the meantime political agitations had spread. As con- 
gress continuously made opposition to Freire's government, 
he, dissolved it. The next general assembly experienced the 
same fate for the same reason. Then Freire undertook an ex- 
pedition to the far south, leaving the government in charge of 
a council of three ministers whose chairman was J. M. Infante. 
The island Chiloe south of Valdivia was still in the hands of 
the Spaniards, the experienced Brigadier-general A. Quinta- 

27 



418 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



nilla maintaining there still the royal standard. To include 
all the southern territory into the republic, Director Freire 
had gone there already two years previously with a force, but 
this time he united 3000 men in Valdivia and embarked with 
them for Chiloe. The expedition landed near the city of An- 
cud and after a strenuous march engaged the Spaniards twice 
on one day, first at Pudeto and then at Bella Vista. The 
Chilenos were victorious in both engagements, Quintanilla 
capitulated, and the Chilean flag replaced the Spanish in Arn- 
old on the same day on which Colonol Rodil surrendered Cal- 
lao in Peru, January 22nd, 1826. The last Spanish holdings 
had fallen ; South America was now entirely free. 

When Director Freire returned from his successful cam- 
paign, the country was in a grave state of agitation over polit- 
ical and ecclesiastical questions. The liberals were divided 
into various factions and so were the conservatives. When 
Freire in consequence of these disturbances called a new con- 
gress and when before it he laid down his position and com- 
mand July 8th, 1826, the discord became general. In conse- 
quence of press agitations, of popular gatherings, of mutinies 
of the garrisons fair Chile finally fell into anarchy. Roving 
bands of mountaineers kept the provinces in alarm and made 
life insecure ; they could not be kept in check even by military 
forces. Ten governments succeeded one another in five years, 
without giving the republic a lasting and firm organization. 

The politicians were at a loss as regards the form of gov- 
ernment Chile should have. Some South American republics 
were imitating the United States of North America by adopt- 
ing the federal system of government. According to this, if 
applied to Chile, each province would be a state in itself, would 
have its own governor, assembly, and laws, and would obey 
a central government only in certain matters of general inter- 
est. This system had, at a time, fervent friends — J. M. In- 
fante, a highly esteemed gentleman, became the apostle of 
federation; M. Blanco Encalada, Freire's successor, embraced 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 419 



those ideas ; and congress proclaimed federation as the basis 
of Chile's government, disposing that a legislative assembly 
or chamber be opened in each of the eight provinces into which 
the republic was divided at that time. But when the proposi- 
tion was presented to the nation for public acceptation it was 
voted down and the federal system passed into oblivion. — 
The governments being exceedingly unsteady in this turbulent 
period, Ramon Freire who had just suppressed another muti- 
ny in Santiago, was again appointed president by congress ; 
but he resigned his position after three months and delivered 
the government to Vice-president Pinto. 

Presidency of Pinto, 182/ to 1829. 

General Francisco A. Pinto had served the American in- 
dependence in Chile, in the Argentine Republic, and in Peru, 
and had been Freire's minister. • He had traveled in Europe 
and was one of the most learned gentlemen of Chile of his 
times. As he favored social and political reforms his govern- 
ment was supported by the liberals and opposed by the Roman 
clergy and the conservatives. These gave the liberals the nick- 
name pipiolos, signifying libertines, poor devils ; while the lib- 
erals called their opponents pelucones on account of the wigs 
which many of the old, rich, and proud members of that party 
wore. Desirous of giving the country a firm government 
President Pinto called a convention which framed the liberal 
constitution of 1828. On account of strenuous conservative 
opposition he resigned the presidency in July of the following 
year; but two months later Pinto was re-elected by popular 
vote as was also the liberal congress, which signified a great 
victory of the liberal party. Government and congress went 
on with their beneficent reforms ; but the conservatives raised 
opposition and began to accuse the government of abuses and 
illegal actions ; they conspired. President Pinto foresaw the 
tempest that was approaching and a month and a half after his 
second election he resigned, laying the governmental reins into 



420 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the hands of F. R. Vicunya, president of the senate, in the 
midst of general disturbances (November, 1829). 

Revolution of the Conservatives, 1829. 

General Prieto, who was stationed at the Araucanian 
frontier, revolted with his army and marched against the cap- 
ital, while the conservatives of Santiago organized a provi- 
sional government junta, not recognizing the authority of act- 
ing president Vicunya. The latter resigned and went to Co- 
quimbo, leaving the command of the lawful army with Gen- 
eral Lastra who marched out to meet Prieto. After an inde- 
cisive engagement six miles from Santiago they came to an 
agreement according to which both armies should lay down 
their arms and recognize General Freire as their chief whom 
both liberals and conservatives then tried to win over. But 
the conservatives did not adhere to the agreement ; for after 
a few days and without giving heed to Freire's orders, Prieto 
occupied Santiago with his troops. The conservatives named 
three of their party men to form a governing junta, who in- 
vited the provinces to send representatives to Santiago that 
should constitute a congress. The president of this conserva- 
tive assembly, who also seemed to act as president of the re- 
public, resigned after a month and a half and delivered the 
government to Vice-president J. F. Ovalle March, 1830. 
Ovalle made Diego Portales his prime minister, who had be- 
come the soul of the conservative reaction. The new wig 
government tenaciously prosecuted the pipiolos and congress 
declared all the acts that had been introduced by the former 
liberal congress, null and void. Thus we see how the conser- 
vatives had put themselves into power by deceit and force and 
how they turned the wheels of progress back. The maltreated 
liberals sought to re-establish the legal government and Gen- 
eral Freire put himself at their disposal in a cival war that 
shed the blood of more than 2000 victims. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 421 



Battle of Lircai, 1830. 

Freire went to Valparaiso to take the troops in boats to 
Constitution and from there he marched to Talca. General 
Prieto marched from Santiago against him. The battle which 
took place on the banks of the Lircai near Talca, was unfor- 
tunate for the liberals. Freire was defeated and exiled ; he 
went to Peru, following his predecessor, O'Higgins. The pre- 
dominance of the wig party over the dispersed pipiolos was 
assured. 

2. FORTY YEARS OF CONSERVATIVE CONTROL. 
1831 to 1871. 

The forty years following were filled out by the adminis- 
trations of four presidents who belonged to the conservative 
party, each president holding the office two terms of five 
years each. The Roman clergy was in close alliance with the 
conservative party in power. 

Administration of President Prieto, 1831 to 1841. 

In the next election Joaquin Prieto was elected president 
and Diego Portales vice-president. Prieto entered upon his 
administration September 18th, 1831, on the twenty-first anni- 
versary of the installation of the first national government. 
Also he had participated in almost all the campaigns of inde- 
pendence, from the invasion of Pare j a in 1813 to the last bat- 
tles. Under his administration the conservatives who were 
masters of the situation strengthened their positions by var- 
ious restrictive and authoritative laws and suppressed with 
firmness every endeavor of the defeated liberals. 

President Prieto's government paid much attention to the 
organization of the branches of justice and agriculture. In 
this last branch Minister M. Renjifo acquired merited reputa- 
tion. He and many of his friends, though they were conserv- 
atives, did not entirely approve of the hard and despotic sys- 



422 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 

tern of the government whose soul was Diego Portales. They 
formed a club and advocated their moderate ideas in a paper 
which they published. 

Constitution of itfjj. The conservatives who support- 
ed the government replaced the liberal constitution of 1828 by 
their own of 1833, which was the work of Mariano Eganya 
who, as his father, John Eganya, was a distinguished jurist. 
According to that constitution, which with but few modifica- 
tions has been in vogue in Chile until today, the legislative pow- 
er resides in a congress which is composed of two houses, the 
senate and the house of deputies, elected by the people; the 
judicial power resides in immovable judges who are appointed 
by the executive ; the latter power, the executive, is exercised 
by a president who is elected for five years. His power is 
very great, for he controls it all. By means of a strong cen- 
tralization the president directs from Santiago all the wheels 
of administration, even those in the remotest corners of the 
provinces, appointing their officers who are consequently re- 
sponsible to him and not to the people. The guaranties of in- 
dividuals, but vaguely expressed in the constitution, may be 
suspended in case of military occupation or of extraordinary 
occasions. The government, having often obtained conces- 
sions to this effect from submissive congresses, has been able 
to arrest and to confine without a trial, to increase the army at 
its own pleasure, and to expend money according to its own 
judgment. In church matters the constitution establishes the 
union of the state and the Roman Catholic Church. This 
paragraph was modified later. The state is to protect the 
church and the church confers to the state the right of patron- 
age. 

Diego Portales acted his role* in Prieto's administration. 
He was an intelligent, laborious, unselfish politician, but was 
without book education, and his firm, severe disposition de- 
veloped into harshness and coarseness. To his influence and 
machinations is largely due the fall of the liberals and the final 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 423 



conservative organization of the republic. Portales made him- 
self the incarnation of a repulsive and despotic policy which 
often sacrificed liberty and justice. The moderate conserva- 
tives were silenced and Minister Renjifo had to retire. When 
Portales made preparations in 1836 for the re-election of Prie- 
to he succeeded, and the latter let his all-powerful colleague 
have his way. Imprisonments, banishments, and death made 
the opponents quiet. 

Peru-Bolivian Confederation, 1836. 

Marshal Andrew Santa Cruz, native of La Paz, had 
fought in Peru first for the royal cause and afterwards for in- 
dependence under San Martin and Bolivar. Having later 
been elected president of Bolivia to succeed Sucre, he kept an- 
archy in check seven years, attended to the duties of adminis- 
tration, and gave a powerful impulse to the progress of his 
country. Santa Cruz planned to organize a large and power- 
ful state under his control, by uniting Bolivia and Peru. The 
military anarchy that dismembered the last named country, 
favored his endeavors; for Peru was already divided into' two 
states, into North Peru and South Peru, and Generals Gamar- 
ra and Salaverri coveted President Orbegoso's position. San- 
ta Cruz intrigued, fomenting those discords. He first reached 
an understanding with Gamarra and then with President Or- 
begoso who permitted him to invade Peru with an army. Ga- 
marra being defeated and banished and Salaverri being defeat- 
ed and shot, Santa Cruz was able to organize his great Peru- 
Bolivian Confederation in 1836, of which he himself was ap- 
pointed the life-long president. 

Ecuador and Chile believed themselves threatened by San- 
ta Cruz's invading policy. Peru and Chile had not been in 
peaceful relations for some time on account of custom-house 
and commercial questions ; but now when the confederation 
was established a rupture was sure to follow. M. Eganya, 
Chile's minister to Peru, left the country and war was de- 



424 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



clared against the confederation. Tyrant Rosas of Buenos 
Aires declared himself in Chile's favor. 

In bringing the first expedition on foot Diego Portales was 
assassinated by revolting soldiers, and the expedition which 
was commanded by General Blanco Encalada, was not success- 
ful (1837). The failure of the first expedition produced pro- 
found disgust in Chile and preparations for a vaster expedition 
were begun to destroy the threatening confederation. One 
year after the first attempt General Manuel Bulnes headed an 
expeditionary army of 6000 men and disembarked near Lima. 
Having been victorious at Guia the Chilean general occupied 
Lima and triumphed again at the bridge of Buin. In the mean- 
time Naval Commander Robert Simpson, an English saiior 
and former officer of Lord Cochrane, repulsed the naval forc- 
es of the confederation off Casma. And finally the gross of 
Santa Cruz's army was completely defeated by the Chilenos 
in the battle of Yungai January 20th, 1839. This victory was 
sufficient to overthrow the entire power of the confederation 
and to dissolve it. Peru's independence was re-established and 
its government intrusted to General Gamarra who was Chile's 
friend. Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador and was later exiled to 
Europe where he lived quietly and performed diplomatic du- 
ties for his country. 

William Wheelwright, an enterprising North American, 
gave powerful impulse to Chilean commerce by the introduc- 
tion of steamships in 1840. With untiring effort he organized 
a company in England which sent the first two steamers to 
the Pacific, which stimulated the traffic between Valparaiso and 
Callao, i. e. between Chile and Peru. The route was in time 
extended to Panama, bringing Chile thus in direct communi- 
cation with Europe and North America. In our times the 
numerous steamers of a Chilean company have a regular line 
from Valparaiso to Panama and those of European companies 
pursue their courses on that western coast in all directions, 
stimulating commerce and civilization. — Wheelwright, later 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 425 



on, built the railroad between the port of Caldera and Copiapo, 
the center of a mining region ; this was the first railroad built 
in South America. Pursuing further enterprises Wm. Wheel- 
wright's name became famous in Chile and the Argentine Re- 
public. 

Presidency of General Bulnes, 1841 to 18 51. 

Manuel Bulnes who had carried the war against the Peru- 
Bolivian Confederation to a successful issue, was elected to 
succeed Prieto in the presidency. Bulnes had begun his mili- 
tary career as ensign in the battle of Maipo and had risen in 
the subsequent campaigns in which he fought for the cause of 
the conservatives. As his predecessor, he was an uneducated 
man, but was sagacious and exercised good judgement. 

The new president issued an amnesty which permitted 
the political exiles to return home and initiated a govern- 
ment of conciliation. Manuel Renjifo, who had been re- 
jected by the preceding administration, became minister of 
finances, Manuel Montt, minister of justice, worship, and pub- 
lic instruction. Minister Renjifo organized the public treas- 
ury, regulating the financial accounts. Though the national 
income did not amount to 3,000,000 pesos, it was sufficient for 
the expenses of the administration and the interest on the pub- 
lic debt. The former administration had recognized the in- 
terior debt and had begun to pay interest on the English loan ; 
before that no interest had been paid for fourteen years. Since 
it was demanded by the English creditors, the accumulated in- 
terest was added to the capital and thus the foreign debt 
amounted to 8,452,700 pesos ; the interior was about 4,000,000 
pesos. Since then the national credit assumed firmness and 
was maintained on high levels by the regularity with which 
Chile met her obligations. 

The peaceful period of President Bulnes' administration 
was only of short duration, political passions burst forth anew 
and threatened the public order. As Minister Montt was de- 



426 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



termined to keep order and was ready to employ oppression 
and force when agitations and uprisings took place, military 
occupations and persecutions became frequent. 

Founding of the Magellan Colony in 1843. 

In order to occupy the barren region of the southernmost 
extremity of Chile and the continent and to encourage naviga- 
tion through the strait of Magellan, the Chilean government 
disposed that a colony be founded at Punta Arenas on the 
strait. After eight years of existence that colony became the 
theatre of revolts. Ferocious Cambiaso, officer of the garri- 
son committed there horrifying cruelties. And he whose duty 
it was to protect and assist passing vessels, surprised and cap- 
tured two of the ships which passed through the strait. But 
his own companions delivered him into the hands of the au- 
thority of Ancud where he paid for his crimes on the gallows. 
After a period of quiet existence the colony was again dis- 
turbed in 1877. Political exiles who were condemned to live 
there, revolted with a part of the garrison and committed ex- 
cesses; quietude, however, was speedily restored. Since that 
time the colony of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point) renders valu- 
able services to navigation and to the commerce of the Pacific. 

Literary Activities. Prieto's government had already paid 
particular attention to the national institute. Since then illus- 
trious professors brought instruction to higher efficiency. Min- 
ister Montt made the old university of San Felipe undergo 
changes and thus created the University of Chile of which 
learned Andrew Bello was the first rector. - — The appearance 
of the first literary periodicals in Chile at that time, fomented 
the study of art and science. The popular tribune, Francis 
Bilboa, began to stir the people by propagating unusual ideas 
of religious and social reforms. The French artist, Monvoisin, 
revealed to the Chilenos the secrets of his art; while the lyric 
opera caused great novelty and enthusiasm in the theatres. 
Also some Argentine immigrants, who had found refuge in 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 427 



Chile from the sanguinary tyranny of Rosas, contributed 
through their articles in the press to the literary movement 
which had started. 

President Bulnes was re-elected in 1846 for another term 
of five years and again observed conciliatory methods. The 
liberals, having a majority in congress, kept up a lively agita- 
tion with the conservatives. While Minister Vial conceded 
them some concessions, the conservatives were alarmed and 
the conservative government, maintaining its position, began 
to employ means of violent repression. — Minister Montt con- 
tinued his good work in the interest of public education. In 
Santiago a normal school was erected, beautiful quinta nor- 
mal was opened for agricultural purposes and an office for 
statistics ; while a naval school was called into existence in Val- 
paraiso. — At this time the German colonisation of the prov- 
ince of Valdivia was initiated. The government had farmers 
come from Germany who changed the uncultivated districts 
into richly productive farms. This colonization has accepted 
such large proportions that the provinces of Valdivia and 
Llanquihue are mainly German and has developed to such an 
extent that the Chilenos who live there learn the German lan- 
guage to get along. 

California and Commerce, 1848. 

The discovery of rich gold mines in California became 
known even in Chile. Some Chilenos who went to Califor- 
nia in search of gold fortunately took ship-loads of wheat and 
flour with them which they sold to the starving miners at gold 
prices. This stimulated the raising of wheat in Chile ; and 
the Chilean wheat is excellent. Mines of precious metals 
were also discovered near Copiapo, Chile, especially the 
rich mines of Chanarcillo. Chile became prosperous in those 
years and the people extravagant. The prosperity, however, 
lasted only about seven or eight years ; for wheat could not be 
exported to California a long time and and the mines of Copia- 



428 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



po began to yield less. Still the government and individuals 
continued to expend as before, the extraordinary luxury was 
continued unreasonably, and the consequence was the great 
commercial crisis of 1861. 

Manner of a Presidential Campaign, 1851. 

President Bulnes' cabinet patronized Manual Montt as 
presidential candidate. The liberals opposed this movement 
and organized the Society of Equality in Santiago in which the 
voice of Francis Bilboa dominated. One night masked men 
entered the meeting hall and dispersed the liberals with clubs. 
Though a trial was instituted on account of this criminal vio- 
lence, the perpetrators of the assault could not be discovered. 
The liberals redoubled their agitation and in opposition to 
Manuel Montt's candidacy they championed General J. M. 
Cruz who was a celebrated soldier of Chacabuco and Yungai. 
While the government suppressed the liberal agitators with 
firmness, these conspired. Colonel Urriola excited -the battal- 
ion Valdivia in Santiago to mutiny and with it attacked the 
quarters of the artillery ; but he was killed and his troops 
were- dispersed. This mutiny made the government still more 
determinate and consequently it redoubled its measures of vigi- 
lance and repression. Soon after Manuel Montt was elected 
president. 

Administration of President Montt, 1851 to 1861. 

When on September 18th, 1851, on the national independ- 
ence day, Manuel Montt was inaugurated, he received the 
revolution with the presidency, which broke out in various 
parts of the country. In Concepcion it was directed by Gen- 
eral J. M. Cruz, the liberal candidate. To fight it congress 
gave ample extraordinary concessions to the government. The 
command of the government troops was put in charge of ex- 
President Bulnes who marched to suffocate the revolution of 
the south. Bulnes and Cruz met at Loncomilla where a stub- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 429 



born and bloody battle was fought December 8th, which re- 
sulted in favor of the conservatives. After an agreement be- 
tween the two generals, Cruz and his troops laid their arms 
down ; the rebels of the north submitted, too. 

In the first term of Montt's administration which was 
very prosperous in regard to the mining and agricultural in- 
dustries and to the commercial enterprise, great public works 
were undertaken. A company began the construction of the 
railroad between Valparaiso and Santiago, a distance of about 
80 miles, through a mountainous country. But the difficulties 
and costs of the undertaking were so great that the road at 
that time was left to terminate in Quillota. During this term 
also the custom-houses in Valparaiso were constructed, tele- 
graph wires were strung from Valparaiso to Santiago, and then 
continued to towns south of the capital. The state also ex- 
pended considerable money to have more farmers come from 
Germany who promoted agriculture and commerce in the prov- 
inces of Valdivia and Llanquihue. To be able to assist native 
farmers the government opened bureaus of credit to furnish 
them money on mortgages. Valparaiso capitalists were au- 
thorized to establish a bank of discount and emission of bills. 

When Manuel Montt entered upon his second term of 
office in 1856, he met much opposition. The liberals were not 
satisfied with the endeavors of the government in the lines of 
public instruction and of legislative activity. The law that 
abolished the custom of primogeniture, i. e. the privilege of 
the first-born, was the only forward step of importance that 
had been taken. Then the method of violently oppressing the 
agitators of the opposition party, made the government many 
enemies who accused it of despotism and branded it as violent. 

Rupture of Government and Clergy l 1856 to 1857. 

Though a Catholic, President Montt did not allow the 
rights and privileges of state to suffer. Clergy and govern- 
ment had lived in perfect harmony until a miserable question 



430 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



arose to dissolve that harmony. The expulsion of a sacristan 
from the cathedral gave origin to a dispute which assumed 
great proportions among the clergy. Two of the priests who 
had been suspended by the ecclesiastical authority in this dis- 
pute, applied to .the supreme court for justice. The court ren- 
dered a judgment which the archbishop did not approve and 
whose compliance the government demanded. The difficulty 
assumed such an attitude that the government resolved the 
banishment of inflexible archbishop Valdivieso, a measure 
which they, however, did not dare to execute. The archbishop 
left voluntarily a little later for Europe. This circumstance 
separated the wig-men from the government; for they were 
now discontent with the president whom they themselves had 
elected. 

At that time there were citizens still in prison or in exile 
for political causes. Some wig-men, now in harmony with 
liberals, worked in favor of a law of general amnesty to which 
the government objected. The law was passed, though 
amended. This had the effects of separating the wig-men 
from the government completely and of inflaming the politici- 
ans. Ministers could retain their positions but for brief sea- 
sons, one resignation following the other. Liberals and wig- 
men laid their old animosity completely aside and made com- 
mon opposition to the government party.. Notwithstanding, 
the latter won in the following election by a large majority. 
As the agitation threatened to disturb the public order and the 
government purposed to maintain it, there were suppressions 
of agitators, printing establishments closed, meetings dissolved, 
individuals imprisoned. In 1859 it came again to disturbances 
in which all parts of the country were involved. In the north 
P. L. Gallo, a rich and noble young man defeated the govern- 
ment troops and took the cities of Copiapo and Serena. He 
with his 2000 men, however, was defeated by General John 
Vidaurre who attacked him with a force of 4000. On the 
next national independence day General Vidaurre who had be- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 431 



come intendente of Valparaiso was struck dead by a bullet in 
an uproar in that city. 

In consequence of these disturbances a bill was presented 
in congress to establish civil responsibility, which was favored 
by the government and became law. According to it those 
who took part in mutinies or rebellions made themselves respon- 
sible with their persons and properties for the damages done. 
The consequence was that liberal leaders who were involved in 
the last revolution wandered about in neighboring countries in 
banishment, while others whose fortunes allowed it, went to 
Europe to wait for a change in politics. 

Administration of Jose Joaquin Perez, 
1861 to 1871. 

Having formerly been a consular employe and diplomat 
of Chile in France, in the Argentine Republic, and in the 
United States, later a minister in the Bulnes administration, 
a senator, and council of state under Montt, J. J. Perez had 
in the last years lived apart from the ardent passions of pol- 
itics. He was elected president by the government party 
without opposition and, therefore, was flattered by all the par- 
ties. From them he selected his ministers, forming a mixed 
cabinet. He initiated a policy of conciliation ; an ample am- 
nesty law passed which permitted the banished liberals to 
return home. 

The construction of the railroad between Valparaiso and 
Santiago was again taken up. The North American, Henry 
Meiggs, contracted to build the line between Quillota and San- 
tiago which he completed in two years, finishing in 1863. The 
capital and first port of Chile were now but five hours apart. 
The entire road had cost an expense of 21 mill, pesos. Mr. 
Meiggs later also contracted to build the Peruvian railroad 
between Lima and Cuzco, the highest road in the world. 



432 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Burning of the Campania, 1863. 

A horrifying catastrophe threw Santiago that year into 
mourning and sorrow. The month of Mary which is annual- 
ly celebrated form November 15th to December 15th, was car- 
ried on with great nocturnal pomp and illuminations in the old 
church of the Jesuits. The people had brought to the edifice 
adornments and lights, decorating it with lavish profusions. 
While the church was completely filled with women and girls, 
a light communicated fire to the altar and in a short while the 
edifice became a seething mass of flames. More than 2000 
females of all conditions of life succumbed there that awful 
night, burned or suffocated, choked or trampled to death. 
Every family of the capital lamented some one lost. That 
catastrophe became the occasion to organize the first body of 
volunteer firemen in Santiago. In Valparaiso one had already 
been doing good work since a few years. 

Spanish-Chilean Conflict, 1864 to 1865. 

A Spanish squadron of three vessels came to the western 
coast to adjust certain pecuniary reclamations with Peru. 
Queen Isabel II. claimed that Spain had never recognized Pe- 
ru's independence and that it had the right to claim her old 
viceroyship. The squadron under Admiral Pinzon occupied 
Peru's guano islands, Chincha, which furnished that country's 
principal income. The Spanish demands did not simply arouse 
the Peruvians, but also the Chilenos. The press thundered 
against Spain and her ruler; an immense crowd gathered in 
Santiago to protest. Minister Tocornal, considering Peru and 
Spain in actual hostilities, declared coal which the Spanish 
squadron needed for its operations a contraband of war, 
whereby Chile assumed an attitude which drew her into war. 

Admiral Pare j a arrived with more ships to replace Pinzon 
and steered his fleet into the harbor of Valparaiso. He de- 
manded, above all, that Chile salute the Spanish flag with twen- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 433 



ty-one guns and allowed but four days to satisfy the demand. 
Such an unexpected violence had the effect that all Chilean 
parties laid their differences aside and united to support the 
government. A declaration of war to Spain was the reply to 
the demand. 

Chile had no other war vessels than the old corvette, Es- 
meralda, and a few small boats which left Valparaiso at the 
first hours of the conflict and went to the channels of Chiloe. 
Pareja was blockading the various ports of Chile when J. Wil- 
liams Reballedo, commander of the Esmeralda, left the south- 
ern channels. Surprising the Spanish schooner, Covadonga, 
in front of Papudo, he captured it and returned with it to the 
retreat of Chiloe. When in Valparaiso arrogant Pareja heard 
the cannons roar that carried off one of his vessels the proud 
admiral could not endure the shock and, indeed, took his own 
life ; his corpse was buried in the waters of the Pacific. 

Chile and Peru made a treaty of offensive and defensive 
alliance against Spain which on the part of Chile was signed 
by Domingo Santa Maria. The operations, however, were 
carried on without energy; in several months nothing hap- 
pened. As the resultless war caused Spain heavy expenses 
in maintaining her squadron which was suffering for want of 
supplies, the Spanish government resolved to relinquish its de- 
mands. It, however, maliciously ordered that before leaving 
the western coast, her squadron should bombard the ports of 
Valparaiso and Callao. Though the foreign diplomats made 
endeavors to prevent that wanton act of hostility, yet one 
morning in March, 1865, the North American, German, Eng- 
lish, and other admirals were asked to leave the bay of Val- 
paraiso which was as yet defenseless and at a short distance 
they viewed the criminal spectacle. For four hours the Span- 
ish bombs fell on the ware- and custom-houses and other pub- 
lic and also private buildings, causing a conflagration that de- 
stroyed most valuable merchandises, and a part of the princi- 
pal city ward. — Five years after 1 this occurrence a treaty was 

28 



434 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



signed in Washington in consequence of the good offices of the 
United States government. According to this treaty the hos- 
tilities could not be renewed between the belligerents, unless 
notification had been given two years in advance. Chile and 
Spain, however, somewhat later adjusted a treaty by which 
peace and former friendship were re-established. 

President Perez was re-elected in 1866. His administra- 
tion paid much attention to secondary instruction. Lyceums, 
giving academic instruction, were opened in all the provincial 
capitals where they did not yet exist, and the instruction in 
them received a more positive character as did also that of the 
flourishing National Institute. By making the study of var- 
ious branches obligatory a veritable revolution in public in- 
struction was initiated. 

Speaking of material improvements and progress, the 
Chilean government had become the owner of the railroad be- 
tween Santiago and Valparaiso by buying the railroad stock of 
individuals. The government built the line towards the south, 
intending to reach Talcahuano and Araucania. The locomo- 
tives and coaches that run over the southern lines are from 
the United States. In Santiago a magnificent university build- 
ing was erected on the Alameda de las Delicias. In Valparai- 
so fortifications were built, a very large wharf was constructed, 
and new custom-houses were erected. 

A national agricultural exposition was opened in Santiago 
in 1869 which stimulated the introduction of European and 
North American machinery of agriculture and of more perfect 
samples of domestic animals, to improve the Chilean. Thus 
the transformation was begun which has rapidly changed the 
old methods and ways of agricultural life. 

Araucania Opened to Colonization, 1868 to 18/0. 

Authorized by congress to use funds to increase the army, 
the government undertook the sectional occupation of Arauca- 
nia progressively. The Chilean troops made there various 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 435 



campaigns and pushed the natives back into the interior of 
their country. The river Biobio having been the frontier limit 
since the early colonial times, or since 250 years, now the 
Malleco became the southern limit and this was protected by 
a series of forts. All the districts vacated by the natives, were 
occupied by Chilenos, new towns were founded and thus the 
republic grew in strength and wealth. Angol, founded by 
Valdivia, now became in a few years an important city, being 
the southern terminus of Chile's main railroad and the author's 
field of labor. 

During President Perez' administration interior peace was 
maintained without military occupation or extraordinary meas- 
ures ; liberty of assembling and of the press was fully en- 
joyed. The law of personal responsibility for political offens- 
es was abolished, likewise that of imprisonment for debt. A 
new code of commercial laws was promulgated and a revision 
of the constitution of 1833 initiated. An interpretative amend- 
ment to Art. 5 of the constitution was accepted which permits 
Protestants and dissenters to practice their cult within par- 
ticular buildings and to teach their religion in special schools. 

3. FORTY YEARS OF LIBERAL LEGISLATION AND 
PROGRESS, 1871 to 1911. 

This period is filled out with contentions on the legislative 
floor and struggles on the battlefields. Through fights with 
internal enemies and battles with outside foes the republic 
gained more liberty and strength. Chile rose to a higher plain 
of national life. 

Administration of President Errasuris, i8yi to i8y6. 

Frederic Errazuriz who had written an apology of the 
liberal constitution of 1828, belonged to the old liberal party 
which fought Montt's administration, and he had been soul 
and body in the last cabinet of President Perez. Elected to 



436 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the presidency by the fusion of conservatives and moderate 
liberals, the new president selected his cabinet from these par- 
ties. Soon, however, the controlling influence of the conser- 
vatives made itself felt and that principally in the line of pub- 
lic instruction. Grave changes in the courses of study of the 
National Institute, of the provincial lyceums, and of public 
schools in general, caused the efficiency' of these institutions to 
go back. This induced many liberals to withhold their sup- 
port from the government. 

Political-Religious Agitation, 18/4. 

Church matters contributed to the complication of politics. 
The people were drawn into an agitation over a noisy question 
of cemeteries. The liberals wanted them to be free for indi- 
viduals of all beliefs, while the conservatives and clergy wanted 
them to be kept for Catholics exclusively. One law that was 
enacted withdrew the charter which had given the clergy 
special privileges. In virtue of same the priests who might 
be accused of civil or criminal offenses are to be tried not by 
ecclesiastical judges as formerly, but by civil or common judg- 
es and without privileges. Did this highly important reform 
cause great excitement among the clergy and make them to 
contradict, the project of a new code of penal laws irritated 
them still more. This contained bills which prescribed pun- 
ishment for clergymen or preachers who might incite to dis- 
obedience of the laws and to rebellion against the state author- 
ities. The bishops, headed by the archbishop of Santiago, 
fulminated sentences of excommunication against all members 
of congress and of the government who would contribute to 
give legal force to those bills. In spite of this, they were 
made into law though with amendments. We see that the lib- 
erals had to fight their way through and that they then were 
turned out of the church. Here is the reason why so many 
prominent Chilenos are not church people ; the number of 
these increases remarkably among the ranks of the liberals to 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 437 



whom the young men largely belong. — In matters of public 
instruction the government changed to the better by improving 
the courses of study and by returning to the former efficiency 
of the profession. The law was enacted that the teaching of 
the Catholic religion in state schools was not obligatory upon 
the children of dissenters. Other questions also occupied the 
minds of the lawmakers, though they were at that time not 
yet disposed of ; such as, the absolute freedom of the cults, 
lay cemeteries, civil registry and matrimony, separation of 
church and state. 

The legislation on those ecclesiastical questions, had the 
effect that the old wig conservatives separated from the liber- 
als and from President Errazuriz. In this manner terminated 
the fusion of those two parties in 1874 which had begun in 
1858. — Though the clergy always supported the conservatives, 
without having in the past fully entered into the political bat- 
tles, from now on, however, the bishops and priests with large 
numbers of religionists intervened directly in the electoral 
fights and communicated to politics the impassioned character 
of religious zeal. This gave the start to the organization of the 
clerical party which was called ultramontane or Roman, as in 
Europe, on account of its blind adhesion to the pope. 

The exploitation of the rich mine Caracoles in the desert 
of Atacama, the trade which Chile carried on with the saltpetre 
of the Peruvian territory of Tarapaca, which in large part was 
gained by Chilean capital, and the contract of a new fiscal loan, 
gave activity to business and made the first years of Errazuriz' 
administration look prosperous. Great public works were 
finished and others commenced. In Santiago the sumptuous 
congressional palace and the spacious international edifice of 
arts and industry were finished. The laying of the transatlan- 
tic cable from Europe via Rio de Janeiro to Buenos Aires, 
established, by means of the transandine telegraph line from 
Buenos Aires to Santiago direct communication between Chile 
and Europe. — The previous administration had increased the 



438 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Chilean navy by having the two wooden corvettes, O'Higgins 
and Chacabuco, constructed and now the war vessels, Magel- 
lanes, Admiral Lord Cochrane, and Blanco Encalada, were 
added; all were built in England and the last two are iron- 
clads. 

The national debt which had doubled in the preceding 
administration, now increased to such enormous proportions 
that it reached a total of 60,000,000 pesos; the interest ab- 
sorbed a high percentage of the annual public revenue. Not- 
withstanding the stringent financial situation the government 
favored a law that remembered all the employes of the re- 
public with a recompense equal to twenty-five per cent above 
their regular salaries. However, soon the afflictions came, — 
the Caracoles mines gave out ; the Peruvian government made 
itself master of the saltpetre deposits of Tarapaca, taking this 
source of income away from Chile's commerce ; and a pro- 
longed commerical and financial crisis decreased the revenue, 
while public expenses were on the increase. 

Anibal Pinto's Administration, 18/6 to 188 1. 

At the approach of the new presi- 
dential election liberals and conserva- 
tives agreed to support a candidate 
who would be named in a convention 
properly called. About 1000 conven- 
tion men agreed on Anibal Pinto of 
Concepcion who was elected president 
a little later. September 18th, 1876, 
he was inaugurated, wearing the tri- 
colored ribbon, Chile's presidential 
insignia. Formerly legation secretary 
in Europe, Pinto had been intendente 

ANIBAL PINTO r . 

of Concepcion and lately minister of 
war and navy under President Errazuriz. He was a member 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 439 



of the liberal party which was in control during his entire term 
of office. 

The new government received the financial distress as 
legacy and made earnest endeavors to repair the evil. New 
taxes were imposed, the increase of twenty-five per cent 
on the employes' salaries was recalled, and considerable econ- 
omy in national expenses observed ; for the standing army was 
reduced to 2440 men and various war vessels were dismantled. 
Nevertheless, the general economic crisis increased ; for the 
rate of interest on money rose while properties and titles of 
credit decreased in value. The scarcity of precious metals 
caused such a situation that banks were unable to convert their 
bills; the law of inconvertibility gave the bank-notes forced 
circulation. While this critical situation was depressing fair 
Chile, alarming rumors of complications with the Argentine 
Republic circulated and then came the war of the Pacific with 
Bolivia and Peru. 

Controversy about Limits with the Argentine Republic. 

The little fixedness formerly given by Spain to the limits 
of her American colonies became, when they constituted them- 
selves as independent republics, the causes of repeated quarrels 
and wars. The founding of the Chilean colony of Magellan in 
1843 brought about an obstinate dispute between Chile and 
the Argentine Republic over the sovereignty of Patagonia 
and Fireland. After long and vexatious diplomatic discus- 
sions the negotiations were abruptly suspended in the mid- 
dle of 1878. The Argentine squadron received orders to sail 
for Patagonia and the Chilean to sail for the straits. War 
seemed imminent at the close of the year; but happily both 
governments soon took up negotiations anew and came to 
terms. The treaty of 1881 left to Chile all the region of the 
strait including Fireland, and to Argentina the vast expanse 
of Oriental Patagonia. 



440 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Controversy about Limits with Bolivia. 

In the north Bolivia had laid claims already since 1863 to 
a part of the desert of Atacama. Enterprising Chilenos had 
explored that arid region and discovered deposits of guano, 
excrement of sea-birds, at Mejillones on the Bolivian coast. 
The difficulty with Bolivia was then settled with the under- 
standing that the revenue income from the deposits be divided 
equally between the contracting parties. In the two following 
years other Chilean explorers discovered deposits of saltpetre 
south of Mejillones, that was even richer than guano for fer- 
tilizing purposes. A company of Chilean capitalists obtained 
the concession from Bolivia to explore those deposits, brought 
workmen and machinery to the desert, and built a railroad 
from Antofagosta. This town was thus started by Chilenos 
on Bolivian territory and grew as a railroad terminus and al- 
so on account of the exploitation of the neighboring Caracoles 
mine. 

The different governments which succeeded one another 
in Bolivia, did not deliver to- Chile even one cent of what was 
due her from the sale of guano or from custom-house duties. 
After repeated negotiations a treaty was signed in 1874 which 
fixed parallel 24 south as the limit of the republics and stipu- 
lated the sole condition that Bolivia does not burden the Chil- 
ean industries, which were established on her territory, with 
new contributions. 

Conflict with Bolivia, 1879. 

Bolivia did neither comply with this treaty. Stimulated 
by Peru upon whose secret alliance she depended and thinking 
Chile to be without resources, the government of General Hil- 
arion Daza, president of Bolivia, promulgated a law in 1878 
which put contributions on the saltpetre which the Chilean 
company of Antofagasto exported. Without accepting the 
offer of arbitration which Chile proposed before that law 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 441 



might be applied, the Bolivian government decreed that the 
saltpetre plant of the Chilean company be delivered to it and 
that it be sold at public auction. 

Chile could not consent to such a stupid disregard of the 
treaty. The same day set for the auction 200 Chilean soldiers 
occupied Antofagasta and that without resistance. At the 
news of this occupation Bolivia declared war against Chile, 
expelled the Chilean residents violently from her territory, 
and confiscated their properties. 

Secret Treaty of Alliance against Chile. 

The copious riches which the guano of Peru had brought 
that country, had been dissipated by unscrupulous presidents. 
To get out of its financial trouble, the government of Peru 
wanted to appropriate the rich saltpetre plants of Tarapaca 
which were in the hands of Chilenos and which made compe- 
tition to guano. Anticipating trouble with Chile, Peru had 
induced Bolivia to make a treaty of alliance with her against 
Chile which was signed February 8th, 1873, in Lima and had 
been kept secret ever since. Thereupon the Peruvian govern- 
ment proceeded against the Chilean establishments of Tarapa- 
ca, causing great damage to the capitalists and to the com- 
merce of Chile. 

War with Peru and Bolivia, i8/p. 

Peace between Chile and Bolivia being broken, Peru 
played the role of an impartial and friendly mediator. While 
preparing for war, the Peruvians sent a plenipotentiary to 
Chile to talk peace who affirmed that he ignored the existence 
of a secret alliance between Peru and Bolivia. Such an alli- 
ance, however, was in everybody's mouth and the Peruvian 
government at last admitted its existence. Thereupon Chile 
declared war against Peru also. The people of Lima ap- 
plauded enthusiastically when their president, General M. J. 
Prado, declared that he would wage a tremendous war with 



442 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Chile. The Chilean residents of Peru were violently driven 
out and came to enlist in the army of their fatherland. 

Chile with 2,300,000 inhabitants had reduced her army 
to 2440 soldiers. Peru, having a population of 3,000,000, 
maintained an army of 7000 men, and Bolivia with 2,000,000 
people had 3000 soldiers. The troops of these two countries 
were in the constant fights that had agitated them, used to a 
life of war; while the Chilean soldiers had but gone through 
the campaigns of Araucania. Number and experience were 
in favor of the allies ; but their political and military demoral- 
isation and the lack of unity within their dispersed popolations, 
composed largely of poor Indians, led to the belief that the 
final victory would be Chile's. For Chile was strong in the 
unity of her people, in the customs of order and labor, and in 
her institutions which were firmly established. On the sea 
Chile's force was about equal to Peru's ; Bolivia had no war 
vessels. 

Naval Fight off Iquique, May 2ist, 1879. 

Triumph would be secured by that party which controlled 
the sea. While the Peruvian squadron got ready in Callao, the 
Chilean went under Rear-Admiral J. Williams Rebolledo to 
blockade the Peruvian port of Iquique and in the following 
month weighed anchor to steer for Callao. There it was 
learned that the Peruvian Independencia and the monitor 
Huascar had just left for the south, having President Prado 
and a detachment of soldiers on board. By means of the sub- 
marine cable Prado learned in Arica that the Chilean corvette 
Esmeralda and the schooner Covadonga were alone in the 
port of Iquique, and he sent his two powerful ironclads against 
them. 

There in the bay of Iquique occurred one of the most 
memorable deeds of arms which the annals of the sea relate. 
There the young commander of the wooden Esmeralda, Ar- 
thur Prat, a lawyer and sailor, prepared to meet the ironclad 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 443 



Huascar in an unequal combat, carrying the noble resolution 
in his breast to give his life rather than to lower his country's 
flag. The Esmeralda with boilers in bad condition, having 
struck the bottom of the bay near the shore, set Huascar's pow- 
erful guns and the gunshots from the land battery at defiance 
for two hours, while its own weak guns were not able to in- 
flict any harm on the monitor's strong plates. At last the 
Peruvian commander M. Grau decided to ram his adversary. 
At the first shock heroic Prat exclaimed : "Aboard !" and with 
sword in hand he jumps on the enemy's deck, followed by Ser- 
geant Aldea. Both fell there, riddled with bullets, giving a 
sublime example of self-sacrifice to their countrymen. At the 
second shock Lieutenant I. Serrano and twelve companions 
jumped on board and they, too, were shot dead. Captain 
Uribe continued the resistance. A third shock of the monitor 
and a discharge of its guns, loaded with grape, destroyed the 
glorious Chilean corvette. The Esmeralda sank while Riquel- 
me fired the last shot. Of the 180 who had manned the ves- 
sel only 60 remained alive and these floated on the waves. 
This heroic deed fired the enthusiasm of the whole Chilean 
navy and army. 

Farther south in Iquique bay, C. A. Condell, commander 
of the Covadonga, steered his small and damaged schooner 
towards the shore, pursued by the powerful and fast Inde- 
pendencia. Approaching so as to ram the schooner, the Peru- 
vian ironclad hit upon a rock in Punta Grueso. Commander 
Condell then returned and, discharging his guns over the In- 
dependencia, destroyed his enemy almost in plain sight of the 
Huascar which approached from Iquique. Four days later the 
Covadonga arrived gloriously at Antofagasta. 

Huascar's Cruising s and Capture. 

During four months the Peruvian Huascar steamed up 
and down the southern coast, bombarding Antofagasta and 
other ports, though without harming them seriously, destroy- 



444 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ing barges, and always defying the persecutions of the Chilean 
Blanco by swiftness. One night Huascar entered Iquique bay 
where the gunboat Magellan fought it and in a cunning way 
avoided to be rammed ; the enemy fled when the Chilean Co- 
chrane approached. As Chile's vessels did not stop those 
cruisings a change of commanders followed ; for Captain G. 
Riveros was appointed to replace J. W. Rebolledo as comman- 
der of the Chilean squadron; Riveros then sailed to attack the 
Huascar under the batteries of Arica. The Peruvian monitor, 
however, was found near Mejillones and could not avoid a 
combat with the Cochrane. Commander Grau was shot early 
in the fight and those who took his place had the same fate. 
The Cochrane had almost disabled the Huascar when the 
Blanco arrived to take part in the victory. When Huascar's 
rudder was destroyed and its guns were made useless those 
of its crew who were still alive attempted to sink the vessel, 
but were hindered by the Chilenos who boarded the monitor 
and took possession of it. Damaged Huascar was taken to 
Valparaiso, was there repaired, and enlisted in the Chilean 
navy. 

Operations on Land; Campaign of Tarapacd, 1879. 

In the meantime Chile had assembled an army of 12,000 
men in Antofagasta. These were mainly men of the old na- 
tional guard, but were provided with arms and ammunition 
which had been brought from Europe. The Bolivian dictator, 
Daza, had finally united 4500 men who, however, were but 
poorly armed, and marched with them to Tacna in southern 
Peru. Via the isthmus of Panama Peru procured war mater- 
ials from the United States. In the first moments of the con- 
flict that government had sent its best troops to Tarapaca to 
protect the saltpetre fields, having already appropriated the 
Chilean plants, and then it had organized another army which 
marched to unite with the Bolivians at Tacna. 

Chile, being master of the sea through the capture of the 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 445 



Huascar, undertook to invade the Peruvian department of 
Tarapaca. Nineteen transport and war vessels carried 10,000 
soldiers from Antofagasta to Pisagua where 1200 of the allied 
army in vain attempted to resist the landing. When the Chi- 
lean troops made their way into that country where there was 
neither water nor vegetation, one division of 6000 men under 
Colonel Emil Sotomayor marched to encamp in a place, called 
Dolores, taking possession of the railroad with all its material. 
The Peruvian army of Tarapaca was commanded by Buendia, 
an old general, and advanced northward at forced marches to 
unite with a Bolivian division under Daza which came south- 
ward from Tacna to assist him. The allied forces 12.000 men 
strong, met the 6000 Chilenos of Sotomayor's division at a hill, 
called San Francisco. Late in an afternoon they clashed and 
great confusion soon developed among the Peruvian and Bo- 
livian troops who fell back and abandoned the field. The night 
and fear of pursuit changed the retreat into a veritable rout 
(November 19th). — On the preceding day the ironclad Blan- 
co had captured the Peruvian Pilcomayo which made another 
addition to the Chilean navy. 

The dispersed soldiers of the allied army, not having been 
eagerly pursued, united in the town of Tarapaca where they 
were again attacked by the Chilenos. Bloody was the fight 
that ensued and uncertain for a while the outcome of the bat- 
tle ; but the allies were defeated also here and continued their 
retreat through rugged paths until they reached Arica where, 
however, only a few more than 2000 assembled, a miserable 
remnant of the numerous army of Tarapaca. — The two vic- 
tories gave Chile the entire department of Tarapaca which was 
rich in guano and saltpetre deposits. Iquique, the capital of 
the province and principal port for the export of saltpetre, 
surrendered without resistance 



446 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Presidential Changes. 

At the first notice of the defeat of San Francisco Presi- 
dent Prado went to Lima, leaving the command of the army of 
Tacna to the thoughtless admiral, L. Montero who by sea was 
isolated from the capital by the Chilean blockade of Arica. 
But Prado did not stay in the capital ; fearing the popular irri- 
tation in Lima, he embarked unexpectedly at Callao, leaving 
the word behind that he was going to the United States to se- 
cure war vessels and material to continue the war. When the 
President's flight became known, a bloody mutiny broke out in 
Lima, the result of which was that N. Pierola, a daring leader 
of the populace, became dictator of Peru December 23rd. — 
A mutiny of the Bolivian soldiers at Tacna four days later, took 
the command away from President Daza and gave it to Colo- 
nel E. Camacho, while about the same time the people of La 
Paz declared the presidential seat vacant and appointed Gen- 
eral N. Campero president of Bolivia. 

Campaign of Tacna and Arica, 1880. 

Chile, having re-enforced its army, dispatched from Pisa- 
gua and Iquique 13,000 men who disembarked north of Arica, 
whereupon the Chilean squadron extended the blockade of the 
Peruvian ports to Callao. While one division under Baque- 
dano occupied Moquegua and sealed the almost inexpugnable 
heights of Los Angeles the gross of the Chilean army advanced 
laboriously towards Tacna across an arid desert country with- 
out water and vegetation and united with General Baquedano's 
force. The new Bolivian president, Campero, arrived at Tac- 
na from La Paz with a re-enforcement, making the allied 
army 11,000 men strong, who occupied the heights adjacent to 
the city, which are called camp of alliance from this occurrence. 
General Baquedano attacked them with a little more than 7000 
men. After a stubborn fight the Chilenos took the entrenched 
positions of the enemy, throwing the allies into utter disorder, 
and then defeated them completely. The Chilean army lost there 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 447 



more than 2000 men, but the allies over 2800 dead and wounded 
and 2500 prisoners (May 26th). 

When after this crushing defeat Campero and Montero 
fled with the remnants of their armies, the first towards Bolivia 
and the Peruvian general to Arequipa, a Chilean division 
marched to the port of Arica which was defended by the for- 
midable fortifications of the Morro and by 2000 Peruvians un- 
der Colonel Belognesi. The fort was attacked by Colonel Pe- 
ter Lagos June 7th and was taken with lively force amidst gun- 
shots and explosions of dynamite mines. The bloody attack 
and capture of Arica cost the Chilean division 372 soldiers and 
the Peruvians 1200 killed and wounded, numerous prisoners, 
and large stores of war material. Some Peruvian officers who 
preferred death to surrender, jumped with the horses they 
mounted from the Morro into the Pacific, a height of several 
hundred feet. The Peruvian monitor Manco Capac was sunk 
by its own crew. 

Conferences at Arica; Operations, 1880. 

The plenipotentiaries of the belligerent countries in pres- 
ence of diplomatic representatives of the United States, held 
conferences in Arica for the purpose of making peace which 
was sought. Chile demanded the cession of the province of 
Tarapaca as war indemnity and security for the future which 
the allies refused to concede. Consequently the war continued. 

A Chilean squadron commanded by Naval Captain P. 
Lynch, meanwhile navigated along the entire northern coast 
of Peru as far as Paita, made disembarkations at various 
points, and demanded military requisitions, doing all this with- 
out encountering resistance. Then want of provisions made 
itself felt in the Peruvian capital, because Chilean vessels 
blockaded the coast and closed in upon the port of Callao. Re- 
peatedly they bombarded Callao and had combats in the bay 
during which the cruiser Loa and the schooner Cavadonga 
were sunk by Peruvian torpedoes. 



448 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Battles of Chorillos and Miraflores, 
January 13th to 15th, 188 1. 

The opinion of the people and of the congress of Chile 
gave impulse to the action of the government. The campaign 
against Lima was determined and the preparations were pushed 
in Arica under the direction of the minister of the campaign 
who labored untiringly. A first division occupied Pisco with- 
out difficulty and a little later 23,000 men were united under 
General Baquedano at Lurin, 18 miles south of Lima. The 
Peruvians organized battalions in Lima and sent them succes- 
sively to the front, until 16,000 men were united who formed 
their first line of defense which was to protect the capital and 
extended from Morro Solar to Monte Rico Chico. in Chorillos. 
The Chilean army left Lurin January 12th to attack and 
opened the battle next morning at half past four. They direct- 
ed their main attack against the enemy's center and left wing. 
After several hours of fighting they succeeded in turning the 
left wing, which, as also the center were broken up and de- 
feated. The right Peruvian wing held its position until after 
noon when it, too, was routed and the Chilenos were masters 
of the battle field. 

However, the Peruvians had a second line of battle to pro- 
tect the capital, which consisted mainly of the reserves who 
were composed of individuals of all classes of people, from 
the magistrate to the humblest artisan. This army of reserves 
was strengthened by two battalions of the Callao garrison and 
by those who had escaped from the Chorillos battle. On Jan- 
uary 15th at 2 o'clock in the afternoon the Chilenos attacked. 
The battle raged furiously several hours and the fallen victims 
were many, Peru's best sons sinking down into death ; but be- 
fore the sun submerged beneath the waves of the Pacific, the 
Peruvians were routed and their capital lay open before the 
victors. Three days later the Chilenos held their entrance into 
Lima. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 449 



Chile's Occupation of Peru. 

Dictator Pierola retreated to the mountains, sent the call 
out for an assembly in Ayacucho, and was recruiting new 
troops who, however, left him and entered the service of the 
legal authority. All over Peru mountaineers appeared who 
robbed and committed depredations of all kinds, becoming a 
scourge to their own countrymen. Peru passed from defeat 
into anarchy and dissolution. The Chilean authorities dis- 
patched expeditions in pursuit of those roving and robbing 
bands, and such expeditions had to support themselves too 
from the few resources that were left after the war. 

In order to constitute a legitimate government with which 
Chile might negotiate peace, an assembly of noble Peruvians 
was called. These men belonged to the citizens' party which 
had promoted the war, and elected Dr. F. Garcia Calderon 
provisional president who selected the town of Magdalena as 
seat of his government. — The representative of the United 
States in Lima gave the Peruvians to understand that his gov- 
ernment would intervene, to impede the annexation of Tara- 
paca by Chile. Cheered by this idea Garcia Calderon was led 
to declare that he would not entertain peace proposals on the 
basis of ceding territory, thus defying the just expectations of 
the victor. The deceitful conduct of the Magdalena govern- 
ment caused the Chilenos to proceed to disarm the Peruvian 
troops that were stationed in that town. Peru had been de- 
feated in three campaigns and was disorganized; but the end 
of the warlike condition could not yet be seen at the time when 
a new government was inaugurated in Chile. 

Presidency of Domingo Santa Maria, 1881 to 1886. 

The government of President Pinto had brought the war 
against Bolivia and Peru to a successful issue. Pinto had 
maintained perfect order at home and had enjoyed the good 
will of all the people, of the poor and the rich, of the military 

29 



450 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



men and persons in civil life. He had governed with liberals, 
radicals, and nationalists. As the new presidential election 
drew near the majority of those parties supported Domingo 
Santa Maria, the liberal candidate who, being elected, was 
inaugurated September 18th, 1881. The new president had 
been affiliated with the liberal party all his life and had, 
through the press and on the congressional floor, made con- 
tinuous opposition to President Montt's administration who 
had therefore obliged him to leave the country. So Santa 
Maria had traveled in Europe, but had returned to Chile and 
served in President Perez' administration as minister of state 
and then as plenipotentiary. As such he had in 1865 adjusted 
the treaty of alliance between Chile and Peru against Spain, 
while in Pinto's administration, during the war with Peru and 
Bolivia, he had successively been minister of the exterior and 
of the interior. 

Continuation of the War with Peru, 1881 to 1883. 

The new administration, in its dealings with Peru, com- 
menced by annulling the authority of the deceitful Peruvian 
government of Magdalena and a little later it brought Garcia 
Calderon as prisoner to Chile. General L. Montero had been 
named vice-president by some deputies in Magdalena and, 
having taken charge of the government, went to Arequipa 
where he put himself in direct communication with the Boli- 
vian government. Former Dictator Picrola, finding himself 
forsaken in Ayacucho and deprived of all authority, soon left, 
taking passage for Europe. A. A. Caceres who still com- 
manded 4000 men, took upon himself the authority of Mon- 
tero, trusting in the intervention of the United States. — While 
the Chilean authorities occupied Lima and the coast district 
of Peru, they regulated the police, the mail-service, the admin- 
istration of justice and of revenues ; but the rest of the coun- 
try was in the hands of chiefs and mountaineers, who were 
without law and order and committed all kinds of outrages 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 451 



against their own country-folks. Chilean forces marched 
against them and defeated many bands and also General Cace- 
res. 

In the United States a presidential campaign brought a 
change of administration which declared itself in favor of no 
intervention in the Peruvian affairs. This decision and a few 
other occurrences took from the Peruvians all hope of foreign 
help. So General M. Iglesias at last raised the standard of 
peace and of Peru's regeneration in Cajamarca (August, 
1883). He having accepted the charge of a provisional pres- 
idency which the northern departamentos conferred upon him, 
a commission delegated by them met with a representative of 
Chile in Lima and agreed on the basis of a treaty of peace. In 
virtue of these preliminaries Peru ceded to Chile the departa- 
mento of Tarapaca as war indemnity ; in addition to this 
Chile shall occupy the territory of Tacna and Arica for ten 
years ; at the close of that period it shall be decided by popular 
vote to which of the two countries said territory shall belong, 
and the country which thus might receive it, shall re-imburse 
the other with the sum of 10,000,000 pesos. 

Victory of Huamachuco, July ioth, 1883. 

Montero in Arequipa and Caceres in the mountains ac- 
cused Iglesias of being a traitor and made preparations to 
fight him. So the Chilenos had to fight the enemies of Igle- 
sias in order to establish the peace party, and two Chilean 
divisions marched again out of Lima to enter the mountain- 
ous country. General Caceres had escaped towards the north 
where he had concentrated the forces of different guerilla 
chiefs, uniting thus 4000 men with whom he proposed to fight 
Iglesias in a civil war. But a third Chilean division of 1600 
men left Trujillo for the north and after long, strenuous 
marches and countermarches the Chilenos fought and finally 
defeated the numerous forces of Caceres in the battle of Hua- 
machuco. 



452 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Close of the War, 1884; Bolivia Seeks Peace. 

The last victory broke the power of the guerilla forces 
and made the predominance of Iglesias possible in whose favor 
the various people of Peru who sought peace declared them- 
selves. The treaty of peace was finally signed ^October 20th, 
1883, whereupon Iglesias could establish his government in 
Lima. While this good work was progressing, the so-called 
vice-president, Montero, still protested against the authority of 
Iglesias and the peace arrangements, maintaining an army at 
Arequipa. A Chilean division numbering some 5000 men 
marched from Tacna against Arequipa and easily dispersed 
the approaching enemy. Demoralization entered Montero's 
army, it mutinied, and Montero had to flee from his own sol- 
diers. He found refuge in Bolivia and thence left for Europe. 
All Peru was now submitted to President Iglesias. 

Bolivia on her part had, after the battle of Tacna, closed 
herself up within her own borders and had looked on. As 
she now was threatened with a Chilean invasion, the govern- 
ment, to sue for peace, sent plenipotentiaries to Chile who 
in session with the Chilean representative, agreed on the pre- 
liminaries and signed the final treaty April 4th, 1884. Bolivia 
ceded the province of Antofagasta to Chile and, losing all 
seacoast thereby, is since 1884 an inland country. Chile 
thus won three provinces from her allied enemies, making her 
already elongated territory still longer. — We have given a 
detailed narrative of this important war, and shall not repeat 
it in the history of Peru. 

Chile's Internal Affairs. 

Santa Maria had been placed on the presidential chair by 
liberals, radicals, and nationalists and was endeavoring to keep 
them in harmony, but succeeded only with difficulty. The 
general prosperity of the country and the consequent increase 
of public revenue permitted the administration to continue 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 453 



important public improvements and works and to start new 
enterprises. Laws were passed that prescribed recompenses 
for those who had become invalids and orphans through the 
war. The occupation of Araucania was completed, an expe- 
dition even reached the ruins of antique Villa Rica. Finally 
immense sums of money were expended for the construction 
of new railroads and other public works and for the promotion 
of instruction and colonization. — During this administration 
the United States government sent a commission to the South 
American republics for the purpose of gaining the interest 
of those people for North American trade and industries. 
Santa Maria in his blunt way told the commissioners that his 
people would make their purchases wherever they could buy 
best and cheapest. And they do buy excellent European goods 
at low prices. 

Reforms in Church Matters. 

The archbishop of Santiago had died and the government, 
according to the constitutional prerogative, nominated the pre- 
bendary, F. de Paula Tafaro, to fill the vacancy. As many 
priests opposed the nomination, and as the pope himself was 
not satisfied with it, the latter sent an apostolic delegate to 
Chile. The tension to which in a few months the relation be- 
tween this delegate and the Chilean authorities came, brought 
the government to the conclusion of sending him his passport 
to leave the country. Before the delegate left, he declared 
that he disavowed the right of the ecclesiastical patronage 
which the constitution conferred on the government. This 
disavowal of the state prerogatives over the church, gave 
strength to the idea of separating both powers. Thus, former 
projects of law were brought into the congressional debates ; 
such as, to declare the cemeteries lay and common and to 
establish civil registration and matrimony. The government 
supported those reforms and the bills, passed into law, all 
under noisy protests of the clergy and the conservatives (Jan- 



454 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



uary, 1884). The law recognizing civil marriages caused a 
very remarkable situation. The government refused to allow 
a mere clerical marriage any validity in law, and the church 
refused to allow a mere civil marriage any validity in religion. 
Women took sides mostly with the church and men mostly 
with the government. The consequence was that there were 
but few marriages ; couples lived together without being legal- 
ly joined and raised children. All this produced serious dis- 
orders, especially in the presidential campaign of 1886 when 
Balmaceda was elected; several persons lost their lives in 
Santiago in that campaign. 

Balmaceda' s Administration. 

Jose Manuel Balmaceda entered upon the presidential 
duties September 18th, 1886, the day of the national anniver- 
sary. He was a sincere, enthusiastic liberal, was both clever 
and capable. Under his administration neither the president 
nor any highly-placed official was allowed to find lucrative posts 
for his friends. Of course this was magnificent, but to the 
average Chilean politician it was certainly not business. The 
president, too, was determined to educate the people and not 
fewer than 1500 schools with 100,000 pupils were established 
by him at a cost of 3,000,000 pesos a year. Normal schools 
were opened in provincial capitals where they were not yet, 
to educate young men and ladies to teach in the public schools. 
The government even furnished books and school material 
free of charge to the children whose parents could not pur- 
chase them. 

But Chile is only nominally a republic ; it was then and is 
now an oligarchy, governed and directed by a* few very rich 
families. Those families had no doubt liberal sentiments of 
the most elevated character; but they had no desire to raise 
the populace to their own level. Thus Balmaceda found very 
soon that the influence of the powerful families was strongly 
opposed to him. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 455 



This was not all, but the president maintained that the 
foreigners carried Chile's wealth to their own countries by 
exploiting the nitrate works of Tarapaca and in other ways, 
and hinted that Chile was made for the Chilenos and not for 
the benefit of foreigners. This turned against him not only 
the English and German communities of Valparaiso and of the 
saltpetre fields, but also their governments. 

In addition to the railroads which we have mentioned, 
1369 kilometers at a cost of 35,500,000 pesos were to be laid 
down in the ensuing year. In spite of these and other expens- 
es there was a surplus of 25,000,000 pesos January 1st, 1889. 
This was after the costly war with Peru and Bolivia and is 
certainly a distinct proof of Balmaceda's great administrative 
ability. 

But when Balmaceda began to touch the endowments of 
the Roman Catholic Church, his fall became a certainty. 
Ecclesiastical fees and stipends had by him been sternly 
reduced; civil marriages, with the resulting loss to the priests, 
had been established and in consequence his ruin was only a 
matter of time. 

Towards the end of 1890 Balmaceda had aroused against 
him every party in Chile, except those few liberals who were 
actually in office. The particular pretext chosen for attacking 
him did not matter. The people accused the president of ille- 
gal steps ; but no one could prove his conduct to be unconsti- 
tutional, though this is what occupies most space in the his- 
tories of that unfortunate period; Balmaceda was called a 
dictator and the people asserted he intended to overthrow the 
republican government and make himself a king. But stand- 
ing on the constitution of 1833 he could dissolve congress 
when he wished to do so, and he did dissolve it ; he could use 
public money to maintain the army and navy without any 
authority from congress, and he did use it so, when congress 
refused to vote supplies. 



456 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



War Declared by the Constitutionalists. 

Congress could obviously only gain its end by war. It, 
therefore, met without the president's sanction, deposed Bal- 
maceda, and appointed a junta, consisting of Captain Jorje 
Montt of the navy, Waldo Silva, vice-president of the senate, 
and Barras Luco, president of the chamber of deputies, which 
action, of course, was illegal. 

A naval division was already in readiness "to re-estab- 
lish the constitutional regime." This meant war, not politics. 
The navy consisting of six war vessels, at once declared for 
congress. Four torpedo boats which anchored in the straits 
of Magellan, were retained for Balmaceda's cause. One of 
his representatives decoyed the commanders of those boats on 
shore at Punta Arenas and promptly imprisoned them. The 
boats were, later on, of great service in the war under officers 
appointed by Balmaceda. The army was devoted to him. One 
of his first measures was to place it on war footing and to 
increase the pay by 50 per cent. But Balmaceda could not 
retain the saltpetre fields of the north that yielded large sums 
of money. The enemy controlled the nitrate ports and easily 
overwhelmed the small garrisons. However, Balmaceda ex- 
erted firm control over all the provinces south of the capital 
through the provincial officials who are servants of the presi- 
dent, being appointed by him and responsible to him. What- 
ever intendente did not coincide with Balmaceda's policy, was 
recalled and the vacancy filled by a firm adherent. Thus it 
came to pass that Balmaceda could exercise a regime of despot- 
ism over the people during the civil war. His opponents or 
enemies were persecuted ; many citizens were put in prison, 
others fled and found refuge in caves and crevices of the 
Andes. The people grew quiet ; silence reigned in the city of 
Talca where the author then lived and labored, and sullenness 
held fair Chile spellbound. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 457 



Organisation of the Constitutional Army. 

The congressional navy proceeded north and blockaded 
Iquique, Pisagna, and a number of smaller ports. We shall 
not relate the lesser movements of the navy. The great need 
of the constitutionalists was an army. They recruited men in 
the north and large numbers flocked to their standards, to fight 
the unconstitutional president. To acquire rifles and ammuni- 
tion, they sent a vessel to the coast of California to make pur- 
chases in the United States; for they believed that the great 
republic of the north would furnish them for money what they 
needed to re-establish their constitution. But they were sadly 
disappointed when the vessel returned to Iquique without war 
materials. The vessel then was sent to Europe on the same 
. mission and in the monarchies of Germany and Austria they 
purchased all they needed to equip their army ; the loaded ves- 
sel was brought safely back to Iquique. In the meantime Emil 
Koerner of the German army had drilled the men and instruct- 
ed the officers in the art of fighting an enemy and of winning 
victories. The constitutional army having been brought into 
fighting trim, the campaign against Balmaceda's forces could 
begin. The president, however, was well informed, when the 
constitutionalists disembarked August 20th, 1891, at Quinteros, 
a little north of Valparaiso. 

Battle of the Aconcagua. 

Nine thousand two hundred and eighty-four men land- 
ed under Colonel Canto and after a short march reached 
the river Aconcagua. Balmaceda's troops were on the south- 
ern or Valparaiso bank of the river where their lines 
occupied the hills for a distance of about 4 kilometers. 
They were about 11,000 strong, but were only armed with old 
rifles, whereas the constitutionalists had repeating Mannlicher 
rifles of the newest pattern. The latter did not halt before the 
formidable position of the Balmacedists ; Koerner's plan of 



458 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



attack was quickly made and at once acted upon. The Acon- 
cagua was unusually deep, for a zealous adherent of the pres- 
ident had opened a mill-dam a distance up the river. Koerner 
was the first to cross the ice-cold, rushing water and marched 
his brigade in a semicircle so as to attack the enemy from 
behind. The second brigade followed him across the river 
and on the southern bank drove advanced detachments of the 
enemy over hills and through valleys back to the main force. 
The third constitutional brigade forded the river farther up, 
just in front of the enemy. Thus the Balmacedists were at- 
tacked from three sides and also by the cross-fires of the naval 
squadron. After four and a half hours' fighting when Koer- 
ner was rolling up the enemy's line, they fled in complete dis- 
order. The Balmacedists lost about 1700 killed and wounded % 
and 1500 prisoners, whilst the constitutionalists had 869 cas- ♦ 
ualities. 

After this crushing defeat the Balmacedists were discov- 
ered in a strongly fortified position in Vinya del Mar, a suburb 
of Valparaiso, where they were also protected by a fort of 
the harbor. The constitutionalists' attack was not successful 
and even endangered their position. Consequently they de- 
cided on a wide detour of some 60 miles so as to attack Valpa- 
raiso from the southeast. This decision seemed to be a most 
extraordinary one; for the march was through a difficult 
country, a country that was broken, covered with trees, full 
of small streams, marshes, and muddy places. Balmaceda's 
generals Barbosa and Alcerreca appear to have had no knowl- 
edge of this plan; at least they did nothing to impede the 
constitutionalists to carry out the dangerous movement. 

In the evening of August 27th they had completed their 
march at Las Cadenas where they went into camp for the 
night. The leaders having assembled in a farmhouse, Koer- 
ner sketched, on a floor with charcoal, the position of the enemy 
and the routes to be followed by each of the divisions in the 
morning. The Balmacedists were upon the hills above Placilla, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 459 



were some 14,000 in number, and occupied a position 3 to 4 
kilometers in length. The left flank was protected by wooded 
ravines and the right was placed on very high ground. 

The Battle of Vinya del Mar. 

The constitutionalists left their camp before five in the 
morning. Two divisions had advanced so far as to be under 
cover of the hills before the Balmacedists were aware of it. 
Their right was soon pressing the enemy hard and their left, 
swarming up the hills, also attacked. Somewhat later the 
congressional cavalry got on to the hills and with swords in 
their hands rushed down upon the Balmacedists. Horrible 
was the slaughter that followed and Balmaceda's troops gave 
way everywhere and fled in a wild panic. The two generals 
Barbosa and Alcerreca were killed. The loss was quite heavy 
on either side. The Balmacedists lost 941 killed and 2422 
wounded and the constitionalists sustained a loss of 485 dead 
and 1315 wounded. 

Valparaiso was at once occupied by the congressional 
troops. During the night of August 28th to 29th soldiers and 
the mob seemed to have complete control of the city. Scenes 
of drunkenness, bloodshed, debauchery, and plunder disgraced 
the streets of Valparaiso. Houses were set on fire and ruf- 
fians shot at the firemen who tried to put the flames out. Next 
morning four to five hundred dead bodies were lying in the 
streets. 

On August 29th, the day after the battle, Balmaceda in a 
short and dignified speech abdicated and appointed General 
Baquedano governor of Santiago. Then he took refuge in 
the residence of his friend Senyor Uriburu, the Argentine 
minister, where on September 18th, the Independence Day, he 
shot himself, not believing to find justice before a court of his 
enemies. 

The congressional vanguard entered the capital and took 
the public buildings and offices in charge. Jorje Montt, admi- 



460 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ral of the fleet, became provisional president. The victories of 
the constitutionalists brought release to the people throughout 
the land. Balmaceda's soldiers who were stationed in the 
various towns, were disarmed by the citizens, the prisoners 
were set free, and the common people, after months of anxious 
silence, gave expression to their feelings in open rejoicings, 
in public acclamations. 

On one of the days following the victory of Vinya del 
Mar a number of United States blue jacks received permission 
to go ashore. They entered some of the low places of Valpa- 
raiso and were found out by Chilenos who had a grudge 
against the North Americans ; for it was generally believed 
that they had done spy-work for Balmaceda. So the Chilenos 
attacked and beat them, killing two and wounding quite a 
number. In Chile this assault was explained as a revenge, but 
the revenge was wrong. Diplomatic negotiations followed and 
the Chilean government was willing to satisfy the demands 
of the United States. 

After the revolution of 1891 the 
following presidents were in charge 
of the administration, a term lasting 
five years: Jorje Montt, Frederick 
Errazuriz, Herman Riesco, and Peter 
Montt. The last-named gentleman 
was son of Manuel Montt who was 
president from 1851 to 1861. Peter 
Montt was afflicted with a disease, 
and went on a journey to seek his 
health. While he was in the United 
States he visited President Taft and 
when he embarked on a German 
steamer in the harbor of New York 
he was a witness to the shooting of Mayor Gaynor of that city. 
In Germany Peter Montt succumbed to his disease in 1910. 




RAMON BARROS LUCO 
President of Chile 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 461 



December 23rd, 1910, Dr. Ramon Barros Luco was inaugu- 
rated as president of the republic. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

The Republic of Chile extends over more than 38 degrees 
of latitude and occupies a long, narrow strip of land between 
the Andine mountain range and the Pacific ocean, having a 
coast line of 1625 miles and an average width of but 90 miles. 
The republic has a total area of 291,500 square miles, being 
larger than Texas, and a population of 3,500,000, or 12 per 
square mile, according to the census of 1910. 

By reason of its peculiar shape access is afforded to the 
entire territory, and the exploitation of its mineral and other 
resources is both easy and profitable. As a mineral produc- 
ing country Chile is best known for her rich nitrate fields, from 
which the excellent fertilizer known as saltpetre is procured. 
Copper, gold, silver, and iron are also found in the mountain- 
ous regions of the north. In the central section of the repub- 
lic, stretching from the capital down south as far as Porto 
Montt, agriculture, viticulture, and apiculture are carried on 
and fisheries thrive; while in the southern extremities of the 
country as far south as Cape Horn extensive forests furnish 
various kinds of cabinet and other woods. 

The Republic of Chile is divided into 23 provinces and one 
national territory, which are again divided into departments, 
districts, and municipalities. The provinces are governed by 
intendentes appointed by the president of the republic, while 
the departments are governed by governors and the districts 
by inspectors. 

The principal cities with their populations are as follows : 
Santiago, 400,000; Valparaiso, 175,000; Concepcion, 55,000; 
Iquique, 50,000; Talca, 50,000; Punta Arenas, 20,000; Anto- 
fagasta, 20,000. 

Railways there were in actual operation in Chile at the end 



462 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of 1911, 3573 miles and under construction and projected 682 
miles. When all the work is finished, therefore, Chile will 
have a railway extension of something over 4250 miles. The 
Chilean government has energetically pushed the construction 
of the Transandine line, completed, during the year 1910, the 
great tunnel, and established direct service from Valparaiso 
and Santiago to the Argentine Republic. The great tunnel 




THE TUNNEL THROUGH THE ANDES 



has a length of 9906 feet and is closely preceded and followed 
by smaller tunnels which are respectively 105 and 388 feet 
long, making a total length of almost two miles. This immense 
tunnel, cut through an Andine range, lies at the height of 
10,500 feet above the level of the sea and is, therefore, 1500 
feet higher than the highest road in Europe. Chile is con- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 463 



templating a railroad whose terminals are some time to be at 
the north and south extremities of the country. This line once 
may be a section of the great Pan-American railroad. 

Immigration into Chile is becoming more popular and in- 
creases from year to year. The tide has, however, turned 
from Germany, from which years ago great numbers of im- 
migrants came to the southern part of the republic, so that the 
large proportion of the settlers today comes from Spain and 
Italy. Chile is taking steps to increase immigration and is 
offering material inducements for good workmen in the shop 
and the field. 

A German company completed, at the close of 1909, the 
installation of an extensive hydraulic electric power plant on 
the Maipo river near Santiago at a cost of about $3,000,000, 
with a force of 4000 horse-power. This plant will light the 
city and furnish power for such industries as may require it. 

The Imports and Exports of 1911 were as follows: 



COUNTRIES 



IMPORTS 



EXPORTS 



Great Britain 

Germany 

United States 

Argentina 

Peru 

France 

Belgium 

Italy 

India . 

Spain 

Brazil 

Portugal 

Japan 

Netherlands 

Foreign Merchandise exported . . . 
Other countries 



$ 40,805,052 



32,696,171 
15,775,969 
7,8i4,775 
7,425,402 
6,931,714 

3,856,987 
3,168,652 
2,228,195 
1,333,912 
624,105 
202,997 
146,254 



3,291,074 



100,160 



$ 53,258,282 



26,199,771 
19,551,933 
1,198,662 
292,678 
5,865,179 
3,479,031 
357,470 



2,011,650 
156,310 
292,678 
1,019,658 
3,44i,77i 
3,207,694 
1,463,525 



Total 



$123,401,419 



$124,795,992 



464 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The Exports for 1911, by major groups of articles, were 



as follows : 

Mineral Products $107,483,258 

Animal Products 7,668,669 

Vegetable Products 5,281,687 

Beverages and Specie 78,918 

Foreign Merchandise exported 3,207,694 

Miscellaneous 164,191 



Total $123,884,417 



From the above table it can be seen that the mineral prod- 
cuts constitute a very large bulk of the exports, they being, 
indeed, more than 6.5 times as large as the sum of all the other 
exports together. And among the mineral products copper 
ranks first. According to Mr. Charles L. Harrington of this 
country, Chile is the largest copper producing country in South 
America and it has furnished about one-third of the world's 
supply for more than 60 years. One of the largest copper mines, 
which is located southwest of Valparaiso in the coast range of 
the Andes, is said to have a production of 40,000,000 pounds 
a year. In 1911 Chile's total copper production amounted to 
87,635,000 pounds. 

Chile is quite awake to progress. The natural resources 
are being utilized ; such as, mines of precious metals, saltpetre 
and petroleum deposits, coal veins, electric plants. Railways 
are extended in all directions and the harbors are made ready 
to admit deep going vessels. The government has offered 
prizes amounting to £6000 for plans and specifications of a 
Model Central Machine Shop and four repair shops for the 
State railways. The first prize will be £4000 and the second 
£2000. The railway budget provides 13,521,980 pesos for the 
mentioned shops in 1913. The plans and specifications of the 
commercial Port of Talcahuano have been completed. They 
include the construction of a channel of a maximum width of 
400 meters and a depth of 10 meters, sufficient to admit vessels 
of deep draft. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 465 



That Chile is in a prosperous condition is also shown by 
the dividends some of the principal corporations and banks 
paid their stockholders during the second half of 1912. The 
Concepcion Gas Company, which has a paid-up capital of 
400,000 pesos, paid a 10 per cent dividend during the six 
months referred to ; the Chilean Tobacco Company, with a 
capital of 7,500,000 pesos, paid 15 per cent; the Antofagasta 
Electric Company, 6 J / 2 per cent; the Bank of Magellan, 10 per 
cent ; and the Dock Company, 8 per cent. 

Chile, thanks to the fairness of her climate, to the produc- 
tive character of her soil, to the stability of her institutions, 
and to the perseverance of her people, holds a pre-eminent 
place among the world's countries. Mining and agriculture 
are the chief sources of production, and manufacturing indus- 
tries are developing. She has, however, enormous quantities 
of the four elements indispensable to the making of a brilliant 
future — coal, water power, iron, and copper. There is hard- 
ly a nook in the mountains where water could not be employed 
as a motive power. Chile, at present, affords more opportun- 
ities than ever before for the investment of foreign capital. 

There exists a daily increasing interest in the countries 
of North and South America to further the relations which 
unite them. One of the principal reasons is that the South 
American countries are exporters of products necessary for 
industrial purposes and importers of manufactured goods. 



30 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




SHEEP-RAISING IN THE ANDES 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 467 



THE REPUBLIG OF PERU. 

1825 to 1912. 

A Survey of the First Fifty Years of Peru's Republican Life. 

The most periods of the republican life of Peru have been, 
from beginning to end, full of attempts and trials, quite the 
contrary to the firm and steady methods of the Chilean people 
after their first endeavors. Governments, parties, men, and 
ideas changed with surprising rapidity, because anarchy was 
almost always the abnormal condition ; order reigned for short 
intervals only. Armed forces generally had more authority 
than the laws ; might made right. The interests of certain indi- 
viduals frequently prevailed over those of the people. The na- 
tion found itself constantly divided on account of govern- 
ments which were victorious or conquered, standing or falling. 
Each- new administration generally brought forth new employ- 
es and new army leaders, and cost the country prisoners, exiles, 
orphans, blood, and misery. The candidates offered brilliant 
programs of administration and gave the country flattering 
promises ; but they were afterwards either lacking the will 
power to put them into practice or the incessant agitations of 
the discontented hindered them from keeping those promises. 
The governments which Peru had were either constitutional or 
dictatorial ; they commonly passed away as with a gust of 
wind, hardly ever being able to keep themselves in office a full 
term. The revolutions were apparently justified in every case, 
now by a new constitution, now by public opinion, wherefore 
congress excused them mostly. In 60 years the republic of 
Peru had eight constitutions, the intervals being filled out by 
dictatures when no constitution was in force. Of all the pres- 
idents of this period only two served the full term tranquilly. 

Will the reader for a moment consider the utter difference 



468 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



that exists between the Latin American statesmen and those 
of our own country. In the Spanish American republics the 
party in power has often made use of its opportunity to sup- 
press and to chastice the defeated party and to prosecute its 
enemies. Such a sentiment has never prevailed, has even not 
manifested itself in our country. Here the presidential can- 
didate of a successful party becomes the president of all the 
people, seeking the welfare of the members of the opposite 
party as well as that of his own party adherents. Again in 
the Latin republics a defeated candidate or a leader who feels 
himself called to control, often seeks satisfaction and revenge 
by going upon the warpath and has by fire and sword driven 
the people's choice from the presidential chair, so he might 
occupy a dictator's seat. That way of procedure does not 
recognize the people's verdict at the polls, it kindles hatred, 
generates revolutions, revolutions that throw the countries 
into turmoils and impoverish them. Here the majority of the 
people decide an election at the polls, their vote gives the final 
verdict ; here the people rule. — Chile was spared such dis- 
turbances, but the histories of other republics chronicle them. 

La Mar was president after Bolivar, from 1827 to 1829; 
Santa Cruz then presided over the state council. The govern- 
ment, following the opinions of San Martin and Bolivar, paid 
attention to primary instruction. But La Mar not being gifted 
with the political skill to lift Peru out of her shifting unsteadi- 
ness, thought of aiding the liberals of Bolivia who were desir- 
ous of getting rid of President Sucre who was a Colombian, 
and of Bolivar's constitution. He, therefore, sent General 
Gamarra with a division, who accomplished the desired result. 
Santa Cruz became president of Bolivia. 

Gamarra, having been proclaimed president of Peru by the 
army in 1829 and holding the position until the following year, 
signed peace treaties with Colombia and Bolivia and thereby 
improved Peru's relation to the neighboring republics. Turn- 
ing his attention to home affairs and being desirous of bring- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 469 



ing order into chaos, he continuously encountered embarrass- 
ments and was even threatened with conspiracies. The conse- 
quence was that he had to fight two uprisings. 

In the next presidential campaign the government's can- 
didate was General Bermudez and the people's candidate Gen- 
eral Orbegoso. The latter received the presidency and with it 
the revolution. Both Gamarra and Bermudez made procla- 
mations and declared against Orbegoso. The ensuing revo- 
lutionary movement that lasted four years we shall not relate ; 
but to a gratifying incident of the same we must refer. After 
several defeats of the government forces, the contending 
armies met again about six miles south of Jauja and there, far 
from joining battle, they stretched out their arms for friend- 
ship, rushed to embrace one another, and the victors declared 
themselves in favor of the cause of the defeated. Other hos- 
tile troops followed the example and thus President Orbegoso 
became master of the situation. However, now Salaverri was 
not at ease and made a proclamation. He felt pain in his 
heart over the lamentable condition in which Peru had been 
thrown through the civil war of the last four years. Besides 
this the country was in imminent danger to lose its territorial 
integrity and even its independence on account of the intrigues 
of Santa Cruz, now president of Bolivia. For this man 
planned the confederation of the two countries, wanted to 
make himself dictator of all, had already sent his agents to 
Peru to work in favor of that union, and had, indeed, even 
gained many prominent Peruvians for the plan. So Salaverri 
felt himself called to redeem his country and to conjure its 
evils. He united quite a large army and we know already 
from Chile's history that he was defeated by Santa Cruz and 
shot. We also learned that Santa Cruz defeated Gamarra and 
banished him, and that he established the Peru-Bolivian Con- 
federation which later was dissolved by the Chilenos through 
military force. See page 423. 

After the dissolution of the confederation Gamarra who 



470 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



was a friend of Chile, went to Lima and called a constituent 
congress which met in August, 1839. This congress empow- 
ered Gamarra to exercise the functions of a provisional pres- 
ident and while a constitution was being framed the campaign 
of a popular election went on, which resulted in favor of 
Gamarra. Congress declared him president for a term of six 
years ; but he lost his life in a battle with the Bolivians in 
1841. In the following years a number of generals marshaled 
their armies against one another, devastating the country until 
1845, when General Ramon Castilla, having been victorious, 
was elected president. 

Happy Administration of Castilla, 1845 to 1862. 

Castilla had the good judgment of choosing, for the civil 
and military positions, men of all political affiliations and 
especially of the defeated party. He surrounded himself with 
able persons, improved the country internally, and succeeded, at 
the close of his legal term of six years, to leave the highest posi- 
tion of the republic without the least disturbance of the public 
peace. It was Castilla who ordered in 1847 the first steam- 
ers to be built for the Peruvian navy, and who in 1850 ordered 
the first railroad to be constructed between Lima and Callao. 
Then also the streets of the capital were paved with flagstones, 
the police force was better organized, and the thieves and 
bandits were prosecuted. During Castilla's administration, 
finally, the college of Nuestra Senyora obtained its highest 
development. This was the school where for the first time in 
Peru liberal republican doctrines were taught ; such as, politi- 
cal economy, penal laws, and legislation. Simultaneously the 
school of Aristotle and the doctrines of Donoso Cortes were 
discussed and abolished. 

After Castilla's first term had ended new disturbances 
and revolutions broke out with the installation of a new gov- 
ernment, and the progress that had been begun was inter- 
rupted. So Castilla was returned to power in 1856 and with 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REBUBLICS 



471 



him returned tranquility and peaceful activity. One of the 
first acts of his second term was the abolition of all slavery; 
the contributions of the natives had already been suspended. 
Difficulties with Ecuador arose in regard to limits at this time 
and led to hostilities. The Peruvians blockaded Guayaquil 
and an army of 5000 threatened Ecuador ; but a treaty ter- 
minated the campaign. A commission was sent to the United 
States to study the system of penitentiaries and, returning, 
brought the plans and methods which were introduced in Lima. 
Gas lighting came into use at that time. A railroad was built 
from Lima to Chorillos and wharfs were constructed. The 
exploration of the Amazon river by means of steamboats which 
were brought from Europe, was begun. The Spanish Amer- 
ican republics were invited to send representatives to a con- 
gress. Castilla having concluded also his second term in peace 
delivered the administration to congress in 1862 when General 
San Roman who had been elected by the nation to direct its 
destinies, was decorated by congress with the bicolored rib- 
bon, Peru's presidential insignia. 

San Roman's Short Activity. 

From the beginning of his administration San Roman 
caused the country to entertain high hopes of progress. Con- 
gress, placing itself on a level with the requirements of the 
time, voted two million pesos for public works. But an acute 
sickness brought San Roman's activity to a speedy end when 
he had been in office hardly five months ; he died April 3rd, 
1863. Vice-president Pezet entered upon the administration. 

During Pezet 's term the troubles with Spain came on and 
continued as long as he was in office. We shall relate here 
but the closing acts of that conflict, and only in as much as 
they affected Peru. President Pezet, feeling himself unable 
to compete with the Spanish fleet, that had been re-enforced by 
Pareja's arrival, treated with him so as to satisfy Spain ; but 
the Peruvian people revolted indignantly against the treaty. In 



472 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the south Colonel Prado made himself the leader of a revolu- 
tion whose object it was to overthrow Pezet's government and 
to enter into an alliance with Chile against Spain. The rev- 
olution having triumphed and Pezet having lost the presi- 
dency, Colonel Prado became Peru's dictator and signed a 
treaty of offensive and defensive alliance with Chile against 
Spain. Then the Peruvian naval forces went to the channels 
of Chiloe to join the Chilean. 

After the Spanish fleet had bombarded Valparaiso, it nav- 
igated north to raise its guns against the Peruvian batteries of 
Callao which, however, engaged in the fight. The powder- 
house of the fort exploded and killed Galvez, the active war 
minister of Dictator Prado ; but before that second day of 
May, 1865, had transpired, some of the Spanish vessels were 
badly damaged, and then they left for the neighboring island 
of San Lorenzo, to repair the damages as best they could. 
Mendez Nunyez, the last commander of the Spanish fleet, was 
wounded in the fight and died. The Spaniards abandoned the 
Pacific without having reached any purpose, but rather having 
suffered losses and wrought damages outrageously. — Through 
these occurrences Peru was thrown into great confusion, 
and revolts became customary until Colonel Jose Balta was 
elected president; he was inaugurated in 1868. 

Administration of President Balta, 1868 to 18/2. 

As the treasury was not able to meet the expenses of the 
republic as published in the budget, Balta's government signed 
the Dreyfuss contract in 1869. In virtue of same Messrs. 
Dreyfuss Bros. & Co. purchased 2,000,000 tons of guano, en- 
joying the exclusive right of exporting this fertilizer to the 
European markets, for which the company was to pay 600,000 
soles in monthly payments. This sum the Peruvian govern- 
ment thought to be absolutely necessary to satisfy the public 
wants and to pay the interest on the foreign debt. — The 
apparent good result in business that followed this negotiation 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 473 



aroused the government's enthusiasm for public improvements, 
principally for railroads. Balta's administration undertook to 
build ten different lines ; but alas ! the income from guano did 
not reach. To finish the railroads the government applied 
again to the house of Dreyfuss for more money and this 
time contracted two large loans, offering as security Peru's 
credit by promising the country's revenue. Thus resulted the 
loan of 1870 which amounted to 11,220,000 pounds sterling 
and that of 1872 for the enormous sum of 36,800,000 pounds. 

Transitory Prosperity. 

Though the loans instigated deep hatred and passions be- 
cause they caused scandalous waste of the public funds, yet 
the country apparently enjoyed good times. For such was 
the prosperity that wherever a particular enterprise was under- 
taken business was done with the best results. Nor was there 
any lack of work for any one who wanted to work. However, 
a prosperity which was based on premeditated abuse of the 
public credit, was surely to be followed by a dreadful misery. 

The public affairs of Lima were intrusted to a junta of 
respectable citizens whose chairman was Manuel Pardo. This 
junta managed with precision, intelligence, and purity. Pop- 
ular instruction was admirably advanced and public health 
improved by making sewerage canals in many streets of the 
capital. They also attended to the beautifying of the city, 
whereby they put the precepts of hygiene into practice. 

When Balta's term of administration approached its end 
there were no fewer than seven candidates who strove for the 
presidency, four military and three civil men. We shall spare 
our readers the names of these candidates and also the meth- 
ods they employed to reach their goal; but we must relate 
some horrible deeds to characterize the ensuing election. 

Election Days of 18/2. 
The election returns showed that Manuel Pardo who was 
president of the junta and the people's candidate, had pre- 



474 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



vailed. As Pardo was not the government's candidate, Pres- 
ident Balta saw his plan frustrated and the people feared he 
would not deliver the reins of government to their choice. The 
constant drilling of the troops and other military preparations 
which the government seemed to carry on, incited serious fears 
of a coup de etat which might come from moment to moment. 
The contrary, however, happened. — It was 2 o'clock in the 
afternoon of July 22nd when Colonel Silvestre Gutierrez at 
the head of a battalion went to the palace, made the president 
prisoner, and took him in a coach to the quarters of San Fran- 
cisco. While this was going on, Marceliano Gutierrez, the 
colonel's brother, marched his battalion with four guns to the 
plaza of arms and proclaimed the revolution in these words : 
"Viva General Gutierrez! Death to Pardo! Death to traitor 
Balta!" 

Four Days of Dictature. 

Thus commenced the dictature of General Thomas Gutier- 
rez and his two brothers which lasted but four days and ter- 
minated tragically. None of the three Gutierrez had been a 
candidate for the presidency. The first step of the dictators 
was to dislodge the juntas of congress from their sessions and 
the next to seize Manual Pardo, the people's choice for the 
presidency. The nation's representatives took a noble and 
energetic attitude by protesting against the rebellion, designat- 
ing it as "a crime against the wounded fatherland" and by 
placing its authors, instigators, and accomplices outside the 
sphere of the law. Pardo having succeeded in embarking 
secretly in the frigate Independencia, the whole squadron put 
itself under his orders and declared him commander of the 
naval forces ; he took his course to Pisco. In the mean time 
the army disbanded, public opinion was openly expressed 
against the new order of things, and the anxious people sought 
a way to restore the legal government. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 475 



Assassinations and Terror. 

About noon July 26th Silvester Gutierrez was at the rail- 
road station to go to Callao when he heard the words : "Viva 
Pardo! Away with the Gutierrez!" which came from a group 
of people at the station. At once he fired four shots through 
the station door. Some armed citizen aimed and Gutierrez 
fell dead, killed by the bullet. 

The people, made bold through the death of Don Silvester, 
ran to arms, threw up barricades, preparing for a decided 
resistance, and shot at the soldiers of the dictators when they 
crossed the streets. Thomas Gutierrez, the supreme chief, 
seeing the soul of the revolution and his strong arm sink down 
in death, became disturbed in his mind and, losing his nerve, 
thought only of saving his own life. 

Marceliano Gutierrez, exasperated by the difficulties, grew 
full of fury and devilish determination and a few moments 
later all Lima was filled with horror and indignation as the 
rumor circulated : "President Balta has been assassinated." 
His term of office had not yet expired ; he was killed in prison. 
Now the people became infuriated. For the dictators no other 
course remained in such a situation than to shut themselves up 
in the quarters of Santa Catalina with the troops that still were 
faithful to them and to wait for the night when each one might 
save himself in the best possible way. But in the evening and 
night of that eventful day both Thomas and Marceliano 
Gutierrez became victims of the infuriated populace and their 
remains together with those of Silvester were thrown into a 
bonfire. Nobody could have prevented this horror. 

The Return of Pardo. 

In the evening of the following day when still the fire 
was smoking and the ashes of the victims could be seen, Man- 
uel Pardo entered the capital, followed by an enthusiastic 
crowd. Thus the people brought the president of their choice 
through fire and blood to the presidential chair. August 2nd, 



476 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



1872, he received the bicolored ribbon from die president of 
congress. His inauguration caused the people to cherish new 
hopes for the future ; for he was an honest, pure, and eco- 
nomic man and infused respect for the laws. With Pardo's 
administration the financial crisis began that had been initiated 
by the preceding administration which had bargained away the 
guano, Peru's main source of income, and the revenues. 
Money went out of the country for interest and debt and none 
came back in return, bringing the result about that the treas- 
uries of the banks were being drained and that they became 
fairly unable to continue their operations. To avoid the sad- 
dest consequences the government signed a contract with the 
bankers by which they were authorized to suspend the pay- 
ments in coin and to increase the emission of bills. This emis- 
sion could be made because of a loan to the government treas- 
ury; for the banks loaned 18 million soles to the government 
for which the latter gave them as security 200,000 tons of 
guano. To do this business a central bank was opened and 
thus the republic was saved a financial disaster. 

President Pardo improved the various branches of gov- 
ernment and furthered the progress of the republic by all pos- 
sible means. He also made all the guaranties effective which 
the constitution granted the people, especially that of the press. 
Still the government had enemies, and conspiracies did not 
cease. At one occasion a pistol was discharged at Pardo on 
the principal plaza of Lima ; but the president was providen- 
tially saved. His term of administration having terminated, 
he retired to private life in the midst of splendid manifesta- 
tions on the part of a people that appreciated his excellent 
services. 

Administration of President Prado, 18/6 to i8/p 

M. Ignacio Prado was a man of pure honesty and exalted 
patriotism, of noble character and sympathetic heart. At his 
inauguration he was the object of the liveliest public ovations. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 477 



Prado's administration was confronted by three serious im- 
pediments, — first by revolutions, secondly by the financial 
crisis, and thirdly by the war with Chile which he wanted to 
wage tremendously. 

Nicholas de Pierola believed himself called to direct the 
destinies of Peru with more right than Prado and strove to 
acquire the power in three revolutions ; but he was defeated. 

The financial crisis continued and produced bad results. 
In this distress the war of Chile with the Peru-Bolivian alli- 
ance came on which resulted, as the reader already knows, in 
a total loss to Peru. At the close of that war a Peruvian sole 
that had had the value of 31 pennies, was worth only 12 pen- 
nies, and the country was bankrupt. The Peru-Chilean war 
is related on pages 441 to 452; here we record only what a 
Peruvian writer, relating the conditions of those times, has 
to say about the sad fate of his fatherland. He laments thus : 
"ThQ. nation was desolate on account of the loss of so many 
and so good sons ; it was worn out and a prisoner. It was 
deprived of its resources and was exhausted, being without 
guano, without saltpetre, without custom-houses. It w r as de- 
fenseless ; for it was without an army and a navy. It was 
alone and there was no one who would offer a friendly hand. 
Nor could a glimmer of hope be espied that might indicate the 
way that would lead out of the lamentable condition; for as 
long as the enemy was master of the sea, of little effect would 
be the exertions on land which the loyal and valiant sons might 
make that were still left the Peruvian nation." 

Civil War. 

We concluded the narrative of the Peru-Chilean war with 
Iglesias in the presidential chair, who was opposed by General 
Caceres. The latter exercised supreme authority in the cen- 
tral and in some northern departamentos and did not recognize 
President Iglesias' authority. After two years of civil war- 
fare General Caceres by means of an ably executed movement 



478 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



surprised the government troops at Lima December 2nd, 1885. 
Next day both leaders resigned their positions by common 
consent and, by virtue of the agreement made, the supreme 
authority was entrusted to a council of ministers who arranged 
general elections. When the new congress met June 2nd, 
1886, it proclaimed General Caceres who had been elected, 
president of Peru. 

Since that time the republic of Peru 
is reported to have gradually and 
peacefully developed her numerous 
natural resources. Dr. August B. 
Leguia, the last incumbent of the 
presidency, was inaugurated on Sep- 
tember 24th, 1908, for a term of four 
years. In his message to the federal 
congress in the latter part of 1909 he 
stated that the exports of the chief 
products of the soil; such as, sugar, 
cotton, india rubber, and coca were 
don wm. billinghurst on the increase; the crop of sugar 
President of Peru was exceptionally large. — It is a 

source of congratulation that the medical congress, held in 
Guatemala in 1908, was invited by the Peruvian government 
to hold its next meeting in 1911 in Lima, and that this invita- 
tion was accepted. The exhibitors of Peru at the Quito expo- 
sition, held in 1909, were awarded three grand special prizes 
and 102 lesser awards. — The railroad policy of the republic 
was advanced during the year. The principle of these enter- 
prises is to complete the line that will connect the northern and 
southern systems of the country which may ultimately form a 
division of the great Pan-American railway. 

September, 1912, Senyor Don William Billinghurst entered 
upon the presidential duties of the Republic of Peru. 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 479 



STATISTICAL REPORT. 

The republic of Peru is about 1000 miles in length and 700 
miles in width and extends over about 679,600 square miles, 
being equal in size to the combined areas of Texas, New Mex- 
ico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada. It has a population of ap- 
proximately 4,500,000, or 6.6 persons to the square mile. 

Peru may be geographically divided into three distinct 
zones, going from the coast eastward, with as many varieties 
of climates, products, and soil. The zona seca, dry zone, ex- 
tends along the coast to the foot of the Andes and in it prac- 
tically nothing can be raised without irrigation. Between the 
three mountain ranges are the extremely fertile and healthful 
plateaus, or table lands, crowned by various high and snow- 
clad peaks. On the eastern slopes of the Andes mountains are 
the vast, luxuriant forests, with an innumerable variety of 
useful woods and medicinal plants. 

Sugar-cane and the excellent Peruvian cotton are the prin- 
cipal agricultural products. The mines produce gold, silver, 
copper, iron, coal, and petroleum in large quantities. Among 
the forest products are rubber, the chincho bark, and coca; 
rubber is the second item of importance in the exports. The 
alpaca, a native animal of Peru, furnishes an excellent grade 
of wool of which large quantities are annually exported. 
Guano, a sea-bird excrement, hides, and Panama hats are also 
exported to a considerable extent. 

Peru is politically divided into 19 departments, 2 coast 
provinces, and one constitutional province, the departments 
being divided into provinces and all provinces into districts. 
The executive authority of each department is vested in a 
prefect appointed by the president of the republic, while a sub- 
prefect governs the province and a governor the district. The 
principal cities with their populations are Lima, the capital, 
160,000 ; Arequipa, 35,000 ; Callao, 32,000 ; Cuzco, 26,000. 

According to the message of former President Leguia to 



480 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the national congress on July 28th, 1911, the foreign commerce 
of Peru for the year 1910 amounted to $53,652,271 of which 
total $22,508,021 were imports and $31,144,250 exports. 

The Peruvian statistics of imports and exports for the 
year 1911 are as follows: 



COUNTRIES 



United Kingdom 
United States . 
Germany . . . 
Belgium . . . . 
France .... 
Australia . . . . 

China 

Hongkong . . . 

Spain 

Chile 

British India . . 

Japan 

Portugal . . . . 

Cuba 

Ecuador . . . . 
Salvador . . . . 

Brazil 

Argentina . . . 
Canada .... 
Other Countries 



Total $26,429,875 



IMPORTS 



58,358,383 
6,069,863 

4,598,565 
1,623,154 
1,407,114 
1,114,427 
969,328 
752,625 
386,841 

373,ioi 
180,431 
1 14,496 
102,352 

77,949 
61,992 

43,757 
43,280 
42,610 

100,608 



The following shows six staple export articles of Peru and 
their values for the years 1909 and 1910: 



ARTICLES 


1909 


1910 




$5,741,000 


$ 6,910,100 




5,688,000 


6,393,ooo 




6,034,200 


5,074,000 




1,278,000 


1,328,200 




776,000 


907,250 


Wool, Sheep 


487,150 


726,150 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



481 



June 16th, 1912, an inauguration took place which is 
worthy of notice ; for it was the most remarkable installation 
of wireless telegraphy up to the present time. The occasion 
was celebrated simultaneously in the tower of the Cerro de 
San Cristobal in Lima and in Itaya near Iquitos on the Ama- 
zon, the distance being 640 miles in air-line. 

The tower of San Cristobal hill is a triangular structure 
and is 348 feet high which with the elevation of the hill is 1368 
feet above the sea. Bevause the distance to Iquitos lies over 
a highly mineralized mountain range rising up to 18,000 feet 
and over dense tropical forests, the sending of messages is 
effected with a power of 10 kilowatts of which it has never 
been found necessary to use more than seven. The station 
near Iquitos which is its duplicate in every particular save the 
plan of the building, also has a 10 kilowatt plant. 

At the installation of the San Cristobal plant a concourse 
of people numbering more than 3000 had assembled, among 
whom were members of congress, diplomats and various offi- 
cials, representatives of the press, and private citizens. Ap- 
propriate speeches were made by President Leguia, Dr. Tama- 
yo, Mr. Karl Holmvang, chief engineer of the Telefunken Co., 
and Dr. E. W. Habich, the director of fomento, to whose faith 
and energy the enterprise owes in so great a measure its dar- 
ing originality and its successful termination. Communication 
was held with Loreto and the reply received 12 minutes later, 
also with Iquitos and even with Manaos, Brazil, which is 1428 
miles away. 

This is the highest powered and most modern station in 
South America and one of the highest in the world. The cost 
of the two stations which has been paid in full, was $150,000. 
The next move will be the erection of wireless stations with 
towers 262 feet high at Paita on the northern coast and at 
Arekipa on the southern coast of Peru to insure constant 
communication with all ships along the Peruvian coast, as well 
as independent communication with Panama and Valparaiso. 

31 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 483 



REPUBLIG OF BOLIVIA. 

1825 to 1910. 

Narrative and Statistical Report. 

We have learned to know the history of Bolivia partly 
through her relations to Peru and partly through her difficul- 
ties with Chile. We shall, therefore, refer but briefly to some 
internal affairs of the republic. 

To Chile Bolivia ceded her only maritime province, Anto- 
fagasta, November 24th, 1884; since then she is an inland 
country. March 21st, 1905, a further treaty was negotiated 
between the two countries, whereby Chile agreed to build a 
railroad from the Chilean port of Arica to the city of La Paz, 
now capital of Bolivia, a distance of 250 miles extending 
through a mountainous country. The road is now under con- 
struction and will become an important outlet for the products 
of the republic. 

November 17th, 1903, Bolivia ceded to Brazil the territory 
of Acre for the consideration of $10,000,000. This sum is 
now being invested by Bolivia in railways and other public 
works. 

Dr. Fernando E. Guachalla was elected president for the 
term beginning August 6th, 1904, but died before he could 
assume the duties of office, and Jose I. Monies was designated 
by congress to take charge of the vacant position, pending a 
new election. Dr. Eliodoro Villazon was elected to the pres- 
idency and assumed the office August 6th, 1909. Don Jose 
Ismael Montes was elected president May 8th, 1913, and he 
was the second time in his political life called upon to fill the 
highest office in his native country, having previously served 
as president during the term of 1905 to 1909. He has had an 



484 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




J. ISMAEL MONTES 
Elected President May 8, 1913 



interesting career. As a soldier he 
has shown his bravery in defense of 
his country and attained the rank of 
colonel for important services in the 
field. Sr. Montes is also a well 
known lawyer and has filled many im- 
portant offices, among them that of 
Minister of War and diplomatic rep- 
resentative of his country abroad. 

Bolivia extends over 708,195 square 
miles, equal to the combined areas of 
Washington, Oregon, California, Ari- 
zona, Utah, Nevaha, and Idaho. It 
has a population of only 2,267,935, or 
3.2 per square mile, being the most sparsely populated of any 
of the American republics. 

Under the constitution which was promulgated on Octo- 
ber 17th, 1880, the republic of Bolivia has a democratic repre- 
sentative form of government. Governmental powers are del- 
egated to three distinct and co-ordinate branches of govern- 
ment — legislative, executive, and judicial. The president and 
two vice-presidents are elected for a term of four years and 
may not be re-elected for a term following immediately the 
incumbency of their respective offices. 

For administrative purposes the republic is divided into 
eight departments which are again divided into provinces, the 
latter into districts, and those again into municipalities. The 
departments are governed by prefects, appointed by the pres- 
ident for a term of four years, while the provinces are gov- 
erned by sub-prefects, also appointed by the president. 

The largest city and commercial center of Bolivia is La 
Paz, with a population of 80,000. Other cities with a pop- 
ulation of over 20,000 are Sucre, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, 
Potosi, and Oruro. Bolivia has two capitals — Sucre, the 
original capital, where the supreme court has its seat, and 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 485 



La Paz where the president resides. Congress also has for 
a number of years held its sessions in the latter city, and the 
foreign diplomats accredited to Bolivia are residing there. 

The vast plateau which extends in length over 500 miles, 
at an average altitude of 12,000 feet above sea level, and on 
which are situated most of the larger cities of the republic, is 
the most noted topographical feature of the country and com- 
prises 40,000 square miles. 

The mountains of Bolivia abound in mineral wealth — 
tin, silver, copper, gold, bismuth, etc. — and these form the 
principal products of export. Coca, coffee, cacao, tobacco, 
sugar-cane, and other crops are successfully cultivated. The 
forests contain numerous species of valuable woods, the best 
known of which are the hevea brasiliensis and the castilloa 
elastica, from which rubber is gathered, and the well-known 
chinchona tree, the bark of which is used for the manufacture 
of quinine. As far as concerns agriculture, Bolivia is still in 
a backward state. Notwithstanding the fertility of the pla- 
teaus and the marvelous wealth of the eastern slopes, the 
country is still so sparsely settled and so inaccessible that pro- 
duction barely keeps pace with consumption. The great sta- 
ples of Bolivia — rubber and coca — could be produced in far 
greater abundance than they are today; but what is chiefly 
needed is a larger industrial population. — It is upon her min- 
eral wealth that the republic mainly depends, and present con- 
ditions all point to increased activity in the exploitation of 
these resources through the constantly increasing foreign de- 
mand for the mineral products of the country. While in by- 
gone ages enormous sums were obtained from Bolivian mines, 
at present the annual product of gold may be calculated at 
17,460 troy ounces, which, at $20 an ounce, gives a value of 
$349,200. 

It is estimated that in 1912 there were more than £6,000,- 
000 of British capital invested in Bolivian railways. In addi- 
tion to this, there are also large English investments in mines 



486 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and other industries in the republic. The French have prob- 
ably less than £3,000,000 invested in different enterprises in 
Bolivia, while the German investments throughout the repub- 
lic will scarcely reach £1,000,000. 

The boliviano is the unit of the national currency and may 
be estimated at about 39 cents United States currency; \2y 2 
bolivianos equal £1. The following table gives the totals of 
the foreign trade of Bolivia and shows an increase both of 
imports and exports for the three years given : 



COMMERCE 


1909 


1910 


I9II 




$14,405,407 
24,868,142 


$18,135,000 
29,080,957 


$22,764,849 
32,226,156 


By countries the imports and exports for the year 1911 
were as follows : 


COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


Chile 

Belgium 

Argentina 

France 


$4,863,318 
4,021,264 
3,847,200 
3,836,552 
1,584,942 
1,255,635 
1,104,391 
1,076,165 


$23,237,080 
4,287,162 
244,345 
169,175 
1,466,348 
177,188 
2,132,828 







Sr. Ignacio Calderon, minister of Bolivia at Washington, 
has furnished a table showing the exports from the port of 
San Francisco, California, to Bolivia during the first quarter 
of 1913. The shipments during these three months consisted 
of 100,914 packages weighing 3,911,402 kilos valued at $147,- 
016.16. This merchandise, classified according to value, is 
as follows: Flour $108,592.05, machinery $21,973.73, lumber 
$9382.71, groceries $6914.92, and miscellaneous articles $152.- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 487 



75. Of these shipments goods to the value of $90,233.72 en- 
tered Bolivia via Mollendo, Peru ; $33,925.71 via Antof agasta, 
Chile; and $22,856.73 via Arica, Chile. 

As Bolivia is an inland country how can people and com- 
mercial articles enter ? There are five principal routes as fol- 
lows: 1. From Mollendo, Peru, to Puno on Lake Titicaca 
by rail, 324 miles, then across the lake by steamer, 180 miles. 
2. From Arica, Chile, to La Paz by rail, 250 miles. 3. From 
Antofagasta, Chile, to La Paz by rail, 719 miles in three days ; 
this line runs through some of the finest Andine scenery of 
the South American continent. 4. From the mouth of the 
Amazon to Porto Acre, a distance of 2533 miles, on river 
boats. 5. From Buenos Aires by rail and then by stage, a 
total distance of 1850 miles. 



488 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 489 



THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 

1819 to 1912. 

The Argentine revolutionary period came to a close with 
the proclamation of independence by the congress which held 
its sessions in Tucuman at the time. The subsequent independ- 
ent history of Argentina transpired in three sections ; to wit, 
anarchy, tyranny, and republican life. 

1. ANARCHY, 1819 to 1829. 

These first ten years were a period of endeavors to give 
the country a form of government by formulating a constitu- 
tion. The opinions as to what the country should have, how- 
ever, differed to such an extent that harmony seemed to be 
impossible; consequently there were appeals to arms. As 
long as Argentina had no fundamental law, had no guiding and 
controlling head revolutions prevailed and anarchy became 
rampant in the country. 

The Tucuman congress framed a constitution in 1819 
which made Argentina a unitary republic. Those who pre- 
ferred the federal form of government did not accept the con- 
stitution and their leaders who were the governors of the mar- 
atine provinces, thought the situation to be sufficient reason to 
foment disharmony and to draw the country into a civil war. 
Ramirez of Entre Rios, the province between the Parana and 
Uruguay rivers, and Lopez of Santa Fe raised forces and 
opened a bloody campaign against Buenos Aires which was 
unitary in principle. The federal movement was strengthened 
by other governors who joined it. 

Director Pueyrredon of Buenos Aires, seeing the storm 
approach, abdicated and Rondeau succeeded him June 9th, 
1819, determined to oppose the federal leaders energetically. 
Rondeau united the forces that were at his disposal and was 



490 . HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



re-enforced by Balcarce with 1200 infantry. They marched 
out to meet the federals and, coming in contact with Ramirez 
February 1st, 1820, they were defeated in a battle in which 
they suffered serious losses. Ramirez, the victor, demanded 
the retirement of Rondeau, congress dissolved, and the cabildo 
of Buenos Aires took charge of the management. The conse- 
quences were that the national authority disappeared from 
Argentina, that the provinces became isolated, and that each 
one governed itself by itself and for itself ; thus the first 
national dissolution was brought about. 

Manuel Sarratea was appointed governor of the Buenos 
Aires province. He made an agreement with the federal lead- 
ers, Ramirez and Lopez, by virtue of which the provinces of 
the governors who signed the agreement accepted federation 
as the form of government and obliged themselves to call a 
congress to which the other provinces were to be invited. This 
arrangement, however, did not secure peace; for disorder 
continued in the Buenos Aires province as well as in other 
provinces, because the men who had directed the movement 
and still continued to be leaders, were of selfish and hateful 
dispositions. This was the fatal year 1820 in which ten gov- 
ernments followed one another so that the country presented a 
lamentable aspect, and in which San Martin left Chile's hospit- 
able coast with his liberating expedition for Peru, violating his 
government's order to return home and to assist in fighting the 
enemies of the fatherland. 

September 26th, 1820, the people of Buenos Aires elected 
Don Martin Rodriguez governor, one of whose ministers was 
noteworthy Bernhard Rivadavia. Under his government the 
cabildo which was a Spanish institution, was suppressed and 
judicial courts were established throughout the Buenos Aires 
province. The city received, at this time, the first chamber 
of provincial representation, composed of 13 deputies. This 
chamber had legislative power and enacted laws among which 
were the inviolability of persons and properties and the pardon 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 491 



of past political offenses. By virtue of this last law many 
individuals who had found it expedient to leave the province, 
could now return without being molested. Rodriguez' benefi- 
cial administration founded a university, opened a museum 
and various schools, and organized a benevolent society. Jan- 
uary; 1822, the four provinces Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre 
Rios, and Corrientes signed treaty articles by which each one 
promised to respect the autonomy of the others and to unite 
its forces with those of the others for common defense. 

Rodriguez was succeeded by General Las Heras in the 
government of Buenos Aires. Very much fighting had been 
going on throughout the Argentine provinces ; but now the 
people began to think about peace and union in earnest. The 
new Buenos Aires administration sent agents to the provinces 
to persuade them to unite so as to form a national union. The 
provinces responded and sent their deputies to Buenos Aires 
to constitute a general congress. Having met December, 1824, 
they deliberated the form of government which they should 
give the country and which should be embodied in the consti- 
tution. It soon became evident that the partisans of the uni- 
tary system were predominent. They directed the delibera- 
tions to the effect that a constitution was drafted which created 
a unitary republic. The document was completed in 1826 and 
copies of it were sent to the provincial legislatures for adoption 
or rejection. Unfortunately, however, congress did not wait 
for the answers of the provinces, but resolved to create a per- 
manent executive power without further delay and elected, 
February 7th, 1826, Don Bernhard Rivadavia president of the 
Argentine Republic by 35 votes against 3. This unwise way 
of procedure, i. e. of organizing before the provinces had con- 
sented, brought about new disturbances, yes revolutions which 
became disastrous to the country. Chile fared better. The 
federals rejected the constitution and annoyed President Riva- 
davia who was chief of the unitary party, in every possible 
way and to such an extent that they became intolerable. The 



492 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



discontent became general and assumed such an alarming atti- 
tude that it accepted the form of a revolution and this at the 
time when Argentina carried on a war with Brazil on account 
of Uruguay. Rivadavia — annoyances having been effective — 
abdicated before congress in 1827, which accepted the resig- 
nation and soon after dissolved. Thus the second national dis- 
solution was brought about ; for the unitary party, having had 
the controlling power, was defeated and the separation of the 
provinces took place as in 1820. 

The province of Buenos Aires elected Colonel Manuel 
Dorrego governor who was the chief of the federal party. He 
entered upon his duties August 13th, 1827, amidst general re- 
joicing and initiated an administration which brought tran- 
quility into the country. The provinces empowered Dorrego 
to prosecute the war with Brazil with all energy, to make peace 
when the time may have come, and to direct the foreign af- 
fairs. The people centuplicated their exertions in carrying on 
the war so as to achieve the highest results, and the most com- 
plete victory was the prize of their valor and heroism. 

Lavallc's Revolution. 

The war with Brazil having terminated, the unitary party 
tried to regain its lost power, counting on the assistance of Gen- 
erals J. Lavalle and J. M. Paz who returned from the war. 
Lavalle landed with his division at Buenos Aires November 
29th, 1828. When the first of December dawned the division 
was assembled on the plaza of Victoria and excited to revolt by 
its commander. Lavalle deposed Dorrego and invited the peo- 
ple to an open assembly which met that same day and appointed 
him absolute and military governor. 

Dorrego fled into the province to unite a fighting force. 
Assisted by the military commander of the territory, who was 
Don John Manuel Rosas, he united about 2000 men for the 
purpose of overthrowing Lavalle. The latter marched out to 
fight him and easily defeated him at Navarro December 9th. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



493 



Dorrego escaped, but was overtaken in his flight and made a 
prisoner. Lavalle, at the instigation of the principals of his 
party, committed the very grave error of ordering to shoot 
him — an order which was executed without any form of a trial 
and which allowed Dorrego only a few hours to prepare for 
death. As Dorrego had been a prominent person and a suc- 
cussful administrator his execution was a public loss and it 
became the occasion for J. M. Rosas to acquire the supreme 
power, whose despotism the people had to bear a long time. 
Rosas and Lopez united their forces against Lavalle who was 
defeated by Lopez at Puente Marquez and was obliged to sign 
a treaty of peace with Rosas ; it seems Lavalle went to live 
in Montevideo. The federal leaders again controlled the Ar- 
gentine interior and did not now meet with obstacles as they 
had done before. 

2. TYRANNY, 1829 to 1852. 

The ten years' anarchical conditions seemed to demand 
that a strong man manage the affairs and control the antagon- 
izing parties of Argentina. The man was on hand in the per- 
son of Juan Manuel Rosas, who, however, did not merely man- 
age and control, but abused his powers and trampled the rights 
of the people under foot. In the persecution of his opponents 
he was worse than a despot, he became a tyrant. 

When deputies were elected for the Buenos Aires assem- 
bly in 1829 it was done under the management and influence 
of Rosas, and the representatives, in session assembled, elected 
him governor of the province, conceding him extraordinary 
powers and giving him the title "Restorer of the Laws." How- 
ever, Rosas, far from restoring the laws, laid the constitution 
aside, governed the province according to his whims, and made 
such use of the extraordinary powers as suited his ambition 
best. He employed all the time of his first term in making 
himself feared and in organizing an army which he ordered 
to occupy all the principal points of the province. 



494 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



His first term of three years having ended in December, 
1832, the chamber of deputies re-elected him governor, but this 
time not conceding him the extraordinary powers. Rosas de- 
clined to accept the office thus curtailed and went south with 
his army to conquer the southern desert regions. While he 
was absent from Buenos Aires and others governed the prov- 




J. M. ROSAS, the Tyrant 
t 1877 



ince the difficulties increased so rapidly and life became so inse- 
cure that the assembly recalled him, made him governor again, 
and endowed him with all the powers he might need to manage. 
All such powers Rosas made use of. He made himself prom- 
inent by having his pictures exhibited on triumphal cars which 
were taken through the streets and by putting them up in 
churches to public view. Public documents were headed thus : 
"May the Argentine Confederation live!" and "May the uni- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



495 



tary savages die !" Death was about the only punishment that 
offenders were made to suffer, might the offense be theft, de- 
sertion or any other crime. People were shot without a trial 
or defense, often when there was but a mere suspicion. Assas- 
sinations became customary and were always excused when 
the victim was a member of the opposing party. Rosas organ- 
ized the Mozarka, a society of bandits who assaulted such as 
did not think as he thought, lashing and beheading them. All 
the laws which were to protect the properties and rights of men, 
were violated by these bandits. The hospitals, the schools, the 
liberty of the press and of speech disappeared one after the 
other. All that the country had gained in civilization, in cul- 
ture was being lost ; barbarity took the place of banished civ- 
ilization. Nor were the neighboring provinces more fortunate 
than that of Buenos Aires ; for the federal leaders who gov- 
erned them, were docile instruments of Rosas and, instigated 
by him, persecuted the members of the unitary party every- 
where, apparently trying to exterminate them. Therefore the 
larger part of the families of that party left to seek refuge 
in other countries, especially in Chile, Bolivia, and Uruguay. 
According to Rivera Indarte 22,400 Argentinos perished dur- 
ing Rosas' despotism by being shot, beheaded or poisoned. 
Even the representatives of European nations were treated 
harshly and offensively. For instance in 1837 Rosas made the 
French do service for him, for which insult a French squad- 
ron blockaded the Buenos Aires port. To crown all this the 
tyrant titled himself "Defender of the American Independ- 
ence." 

Campaigns Against Rosas. 

Two principal movements were undertaken to overthrow 
the tyrant; the first occurred in 1839. In Montevideo an ex- 
pedition which was called "Liberating Army" was organized 
by General J. Lavalle, the unitary antagonist of the federals, 
whom the reader has already learned to know. He left Monte- 



496 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



video with but 400 men and won a victory at Yerna over 1500 
of the enemy. When then his force increased and Lavalle 
marched against Buenos Aires, General Lopez, governor of 
Santa Fe, came with a strong army to the assistance of Rosas. 
Santa Fe being now unprotected Lavalle marched thither and 
took the city. In the meantime, however, Rosas had united 
a considerable force of disciplined troops and put it at Manuel 




A GAUCHO, OR AN ARGENTINE COWBOY 



Oribe's command. At this time the French government raised 
the blockade of the port in consequence of a treaty signed with 
Rosas. When Ovalle returned from Santa Fe to overthrow 
Rosas he was encountered by Oribe and defeated with heavy 
losses in the battle of Quebracho Herrado. He fled with the 
troops that were left him from place to place, but was over- 
taken by Oribe and again defeated. While, after this last 
disaster, Lavalle was lodging in a house with his secretary and 
adjutant a party of Argentine gauchos passed and, discharg- 
ing a volley against the door that was locked, a bullet struck 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



497 



and killed the valiant commander. Would that bullet have hit 
Lavalle had he spared the life of Governor Dorrego? The 
remnants of the "Liberating Army" were captured by Oribe 
and brought to Buenos Aires. General Oribe, having success- 
fully overcome and annihilated the invading army and having 
secured for Tyrant Rosas a lease on life in the forties, invaded 
the Oriental Republic and besieged Montevideo, because it was 
the seat of the unitary party. The city resisted the siege hero- 
ically for a space of nine years, but the country districts of 
Uruguay were devasted during those years. 

In 1851 General J. J. Urquiza who was governor of the 
Entre Rios province, addressed a proclamation to all the prov- 
inces inciting them to war against Rosas' tyranny, whereupon 
Rosas mobilized his forces and united them in Santos Lugares. 
Urquiza at the head of 5000 men crossed the Uruguay river 
and, before attacking Rosas, marched on Montevideo to force 
Oribe to raise the siege of that city. The besieging troops, 
being mostly Argentinos and having been in Uruguay many 
years, longed to return home, and thus, instead of resisting 
when Urquiza arrived, they passed over to his ranks. Urquiza 
repassed the Uruguay immediately with his re-enforced army 
and established his headquarters in Diamante where his army 
increased until it numbered 30,000 men — the largest fighting 
force which until then had been organized in South America. 
He soon crossed the Parana and without loss of time marched 
on Buenos Aires. Rosas awaited him at Monte Caseros, 12 
miles from Buenos Aires, where the armies clashed February 
3rd, 1852. The fortune of war forsook Rosas ; for he was 
defeated and the long period of his tyranny brought to a speedy 
end. He fled from the battlefield and a few hours later em- 
barked in an English vessel which had been engaged before- 
hand. The vessel carried him to England where he lived until 
the advanced age of 84 years ; he died in 1877. 



32 



498 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Agreement of San Nicolas, 1852. 

After the fall of Rosas an attempt was at once made to 
reorganize the country. To this end a meeting of governors 
was called who should seek the way that was to be pursued. 
They met at San Nicolas and after lengthy deliberations came 
to the conclusion to organize the country under the federal 
system. All the governors present signed the agreement May 
31st, 1852, and chose General Urquiza provisional director. 
Was peace now assured? No! The legislature of Buenos 
Aires protested against the manner of proceeding, denying the 
governors the right to convey national powers without the 
previous consent of the people. A constituent congress was 
called and pressure brought to bear upon the Buenos Aires' 
protesting government, in consequence of which the governor 
of Buenos Aires resigned and Urquiza dissolved its legislature. 
When then the latter went to Santa Fe to exert his influence 
over the constituent congress which met in that city, a revolu- 
tion broke out in Buenos Aires for the purpose of separating 
the capital from the authority of the director and of working 
completely independent of the resolutions the congress of Santa 
Fe might adopt. General Galan whom Urquiza had left in 
Buenos Aires as provisional governor, was deposed and the 
province organized its government by appointing Valentin 
Alsina governor. Colonel Lagos besieged the city seven 
months, but did not reach any results. 

3. REPUBLICAN LIFE, 1853 to 1912. 

After more than thirty years of warfare and warlike con- 
ditions, after many attempts to formulate a constitution and to 
organize the Argentine provinces politically had failed, the fed- 
eral system, initiated in 1852, found general acceptance, gave 
the country quietude and stability, and assured good progress 
for the future. The constitution, though some of its clauses 
have since been amended, is still in vogue. The national con- 
gress of Santa Fe published the constitution May 1st, 1853, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 499 



which established a federal government that consisted in the 
three powers, executive, legislative, and judicial, and which 
recognized Buenos Aires as the capital of the nation. Argen- 
tina thus became one of the three South American republics 
which adopted the federal union of states for their form of 
national organization, the other two being the United States 
of Brazil and the United States of Venezuela. All the other 
South American republics have a unitary form of government. 

/. /. Urquiza who had been provisional director, was 
elected the first president of the republic. He established his 
residence in the city of Parana, because Buenos Aires kept 
itself separate and had formulated its own constitution. Only 
after another civil war became Buenos Aires willing to exam- 
ine the national constitution for the purpose of adopting it, too. 
It proposed some changes which the national congress accept- 
ed, whereupon Buenos Aires signed it October, 1860, and thus 
completed the organization of the republic. Of the presidents 
who have directed the affairs of the Argentine Republic in the 
last fifty years we shall mention only those who have contrib- 
uted mostly to the advancement of the country. 

Presidency of General Mitre, 1862 to 1868. 

President Bartholomew Mitre transplanted the seat of 
government to Buenos Aires. His administration paid special 
attention to colonization and to the construction of railroads. 
National colleges were established in almost all the provinces ; 
a code of commercial laws was promulgated ; commerce and 
industries progressed. While this constructive work was car- 
ried on the peace of the republic was disturbed by an aggres- 
sion of the Paraguayan government. 

War with Paraguay. 

In Paraguay governed Dictator F. S. Lopez who carried 
on a tyranny in his country similar to that of former Rosas of 
Buenos Aires. He dreamed of becoming a crowned emperor 



500 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and of waging wars as Napoleon had done in Europe. At the 
time of Mitre's administration Lopez was at war with Brazil 
and to invade the Brazilian province Rio Grande do Sul in 
1865 he asked for the permission to pass through the Argentine 
province Corrientes. Before Mitre's negative answer could 
reach him the Paraguayans invaded the province and seized 
the Argentine boats that were anchored in the Uruguay river. 
The Argentine government could not tolerate such a violence 
and formed with Brazil and the Oriental Republic a triple alli- 
ance for the purpose of overthrowing the Paraguayan tyrant. 
The allies chose President Mitre to command the armies, who 
went to the seat of war in 1866 and left the home administra- 
tion in the hands of Vice-president Marcos Paz. Though 
Paraguay is insignificant if compared with the three allied 
countries, yet the Paraguayan army was more numerous at 
the beginning of the war than the allied ; for Lopez had trained 
a well equipped army and now pressed into service all avail- 
able men. In the last years of the war he forced into the 
fighting lines or rather into death even boys of but nine years 
of age. Mitre invaded Paraguay through the pass of La 
Patria and entered upon a campaign which lasted five years 
and in which many bloody battles were fought. The Para- 
guayans exhibited great valor and heroism and also placed 
much confidence in their fortified places. But their fortifica- 
tions were demolished and the allied armies forced their way 
step by step through to Asuncion, the capital. When the 
enemy approached that city Lopez obliged the whole remain- 
ing population to wander into the northern interior of the coun- 
try. Men and women, children and old folks, friends and 
prisoners, all started out and made their way through forests 
and thorn-bushes where nobody ever had set a foot, dying by 
hundreds daily through fatigue and lack of food. Tyrant 
Lopez himself fell at last a victim to fatigue and privation, was 
overtaken by a party of Brazilian soldiers, and met death in 
the thicket of a forest. From the five years' war the Argen- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 501 

tine Republic derived no benefit; it had but assisted in liber- 
ating the Paraguayan people from the perverse despot who 
had enslaved them. 

Presidency of Senyor Sarmiento, 1868 to 18/4. 

When Mitre's term of office ended Domingo F. Sarmiento 
who had been an Argentine minister in the United States, was 
elected president and entered upon his duties October 12th, 
1868. He dedicated himself principally to public instruction, 
having brought the idea of a public school system from the 
United States, and had normal and common schools erected, 
giving praiseworthy impulse to the instruction of the young. 
The railroad to Cordoba was finished and the city of Buenos 
Aires improved and made more beautiful. — During this ad- 
ministration the first president, J. J. Urquiza, was assassinated 
while he was again governor of the Entre Rios province. The 
circumstances, connected with this political crime, necessitated 
an armed intervention in that province which caused the nation 
a considerable loss in men and money. 

Administration of Dr. Avellaneda, 1874 ' to J S8o. 

Towards the close of Sarmiento's administration two im- 
portant parties, revolting, engaged in actual warfare on account 
of the coming election. The nationalists were directed by 
ex-President Mitre and the autonomists by Adolph Alsina 
with whose support Dr. Avellaneda was elected to the presi- 
dency in 1874. Though his administration experienced, from 
the beginning, much opposition and apathy, yet he succeeded 
in reconciling the political antagonists so as to unite and to 
participate in the duties of the government. President Avel- 
laneda continued the good works of his predecessors in the 
various spheres of public utility and the country did not relax 
in its effort to develop and to progress. He thought of making 
the southern regions, the pampas on which the natives still 
roamed, available for cultivation and commissioned Adolph 



502 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Alsina who was minister of war to subdue the Indians. Alsi- 
na began the campaign which his successor in the ministry. 
General Roca, concluded. Thereby about 180,000 square 
miles were secured for agriculture and pasture, an area larger 
than Alabama, Georgia, and Florida combined. 




JULIUS A. ROGA 



In 1880 General Julius A. Roca who had fought the In- 
dians, was elected president. He averted a war with Chile 
which threatened to break out as the result of the Magellan 
boundary dispute, as we learned from Chile's history. He 
was elected to the presidential chair for a second term in 1898. 
Railway constructions and agricultural development effected 
a transformation of the fertile prairies, or pampas, of the 
country and changed them into productive farms of cereals and 
grasses. Large areas of the more arid plains of the higher 
lands were, by means of irrigation, converted into rich tracts 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 503 



suitable for grazing purposes ; they are unexcelled in any part 
of the world for stock raising. The present incumbent of the 
presidency is Dr. Roque Saenz Penya who was inaugurated 
October 12th, 1910. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

The Argentine Republic, the second largest of the South 
American countries, has an area of 1,139,979 square miles, 
equal to more than one-third of the total area of the United 
States of America proper, and it has a population of 6,987,023, 
or 6.13 per square mile, as against 30.9 per square mile in the 
United States. 

Stretching over 33 degrees of latitude the country pre- 
sents a variety of climates and products, ranging from tropical 
in the north to arctic in the south; but the larger part of its 
territory lies within the temperate zone. The broad fertile 
plains extending from the Atlantic to the foot of the Andes, 
afford excellent pasturage for myriads of cattle ; and nearly 
all cereals, especially wheat, corn, and oats, as well as linseed 
and alfalfa, are successfully cultivated. Other industrial 
articles produced in export quantities are hides and skins of 
various kinds, and the valuable quebracho wood and its extract. 
Sugar, cotton, tobacco, and grapes are grown, but mostly for 
home consumption. The mountains contain deposits of silver, 
copper, and gold, which are as yet exploited only to a limited 
extent. 

The Argentine Republic is divided into 14 provinces, 10 
territories, and one federal district ; the provinces are auto- 
nomous in their interior government. The principal cities 
with their populations are Buenos Aires, 1,376,511 (April, 
1912) ; Rosario, 250,000; La Plata, 125,000; Cordoba, 65,000; 
Tucuman, 60,000; Mendoza, 55,000; Bahia Blanca, 40,000; 
Santa Fe, 49,000; Parana, 30,000; Corrientes, 20,000. The 
main ports are Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Bahia Blanca. 



504 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The imports by principal countries of origin and the 
exports to those countries in 1911 were as follows: 



COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 




Pesos 


Pesos 




108,637,430 


91,841,231 




65,862,211 


43,073,014 






2-1,300,464 




38,026,555 


39,692,-134 


Italy 


29.345,979 


13,586,633 




19,485,211 


35,625,605 




11,279,465 


2,177,729 




8,461,416 


17,874,105 




4,304.H4 


2.398,076 




3,069,648 


2,340,913 


Holland 


2,977,739 


6,440,450 




2,961,393 










2,883,761 






2,867,224 






1,738,131 


266,206 




1,666,645 


1,004,209 




1.041,123 


782,467 




600,938 




Chile 


682,302 


2.988,695 




521,603 




Total 


366,810,686 


324,697,538 



As an Argentine peso equals 97 cents U. S. currency, the 
above figures almost represent U. S. dollars. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



505 



The following table shows the percentage which the ex- 
ports of the eight leading countries bear to the total export of 
Argentina. We give these percentages for the years 1909, 
1910, and 1911. 





1909 


1910 


1911 




Per 

X CI 


-L CI 


Ppr 

JT CI 




cent 


cent 


cent 




20.3 


21.7 


28.3 




10.4 


12. 1 


13.3 




9.8 


10. 1 


12.2 




10.4 


8.2 


11 .0 




6.6 


6.8 


7-5 


Brazil 


4.2 


4-7 


5-5 


Italy 


3-2 


2.8 


4.2 


Holland 


i.5 


1.2 


2.0 



The following table presents the immense export trade 
of Argentina under six heads, for the same three years. 





1909 


1910 


1911 




Pesos 


Pesos 


Pesos 


Live animals and meat 








products 


153,548,356 


161,006,591 


168,394,733 


Agricultural products .... 


230,503,996 


196,581,619 


139,764,386 




8,927,362 


10,564,515 


12,254,604 




742,707 


539,902 


565,338 


Hunting and fishing .... 


752,020 


1,428,884 


1,663,285 


Miscellaneous 


2,876,087 


2,504,533 


2,055,192 


Total 


397,350,518 


372,626,055 


324,697,538 



The Argentine Republic is practically covered with a net- 
work of railways which extends in every direction and con- 
nects the capital with all points north and south and west. 
The railway extending north from Buenos Aires connects with 



506 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the Bolivian Railway and the latter, when completed, will 
establish direct communication with the capital of Bolivia. 
The Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway makes connection with 
the Transandine Railway at Mendoza which, by the completion 
of the tunnel through the Andes in April, 1910, established the 
much needed railway connection between Chile and Argentina. 
The last named railway inaugurated a triweekly service be- 
tween Buenos Aires and Valparaiso beginning April 12th, 
1910, the schedule time for the trip being thirty-eight hours. 
A line has also been completed which establishes direct com- 
munication by rail between Buenos Aires and Asuncion, the 
capital of Paraguay. January 1st, 1912, there were in opera- 
tion in the Argentine Republic 33,657 kilometers (20,918 
miles) of railway, representing a capitalization of over $1,000,- 
000,000. The number of passengers carried in 1909 was 
50,810,000 and the amount of freight transported was 31,955,- 
000 tons. 

Agriculture is the principal source of national wealth of 
the republic. Of a total of 19,500,000 hectares (1 hectar 
equals 2.47 acres) of land under cultivation in 1910, 5,836,500 
were sown to wheat, 3,005,000 to corn, 1,445,600 to linseed, 
4,706,530 to alfalfa, and 4,360,000 to other crops ; such as, 
oats, barley, rice, cotton, and the vine. During 1911, 1,200,000 
additional hectares were brought under cultivation so that at 
the beginning of 1912 the entire cultivated area amounted to 
21,884,000 hectares. — In 1910 Argentina stood second in the 
amount of wheat exported to other countries ; for it exported 
80 per cent of its crop, the rest being sufficient to supply its 
7,000,000 inhabitants. Of the world's wheat supply the 
United States furnish 20 per cent and Argentina 5 per cent. 

An excellent opportunity exists for the development of 
the textile industry, in as much as the country is rich in natur- 
al and cultivated fiber-producing plants ; such as, hemp, flax, 
ramie, and cotton. Considerable quantities of harvest twine, 
cotton yarn or thread, jute and cotton sacks, and jute cloth are 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 507 



imported into the country. It is estimated that articles could 
be manufacured in the Argentine Republic out of the fibres 
produced there that would have a sale of $20,000,000 annually. 

The current of immigration set steadily toward the repub- 
lic in the latter years, although not with the same intensity as 
in the years before; the immigrants who arrived in 1909, 
numbered 232,458. Argentina owes much of her wonderful 
progress and development to the brawn and capital of her 
immigrants. Perhaps no country in the world at the present 
time offers greater opportunities and rewards to agriculturists 
and artisans than does the Argentine Republic which has so 
generously opened its doors to all who desire to come and assist 
in the development of the resources of one of the richest 
countries of the globe. — Since 1883 the telephone system is 
in operation in Buenos Aires and other Argentine cities. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



509 



THE ORIENTAL REPUBLIG OF URUGUAY. 

1828 to 1911. 

The war of Brazil and Argentina on account of Uruguay 
ended in 1828 with the treaty that made the Oriental Banda an 
independent state. May 1st, 1829, a constituent assembly met 
and after four months of deliberations completed the consti- 
tution which gave the country the name "Oriental Republic" 
with the addition "of the Uruguay," referring to the river and 
which created a unitary republican form of government. 
Copies of the document were sent to the Argentine and the 
Brazilian governments, as they had had vital interests in the 
Banda Oriental and wanted to be protected against future dis- 
turbances. They approved the constitution and thus the new 
republic received its own existence. Some Argentine influ- 
ence over the new state and its capital nevertheless continued 
and resulted in Oribe's nine years' war and siege of Montevi- 
deo which was terminated by Urquiza in 1851. After this 
destructive war the Oriental Republic presented a sad aspect 
— the fields were forsaken, the ranches ruined, the farmyards 
demolished, the country folks were without roof and bread, 
and scarcely a town or settlement could be found that had not 
been ruined or destroyed by soldiery. Montevideo's popula- 
tion was then 34,000. 

In 1852 /. F. Giro became constitutional president. He 
made earnest endeavors to bring tranquility among the people 
and to improve the desolate condition of the country. A 
mutiny, however, obliged him to resign in 1853 and interreg- 
nums followed. 

Bernhard P. Berro was elected president in 1860. Be- 
fore he entered upon his administration a terrible case of yel- 
low fever had decimated the population of Montevideo. 1000 
persons had succumbed to the terrible affliction among whom 



510 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



were members of the most prominent families. This calamity 
having subsided, a revolution broke out which also demanded 
many victims and retarded administrative work. President 
Berro, being animated by the desire to heal the wounds of 
the fatherland to the best of his ability, created a board of 
merchants whose duty it should be to inform the government 
of the means that might be conducive to the welfare of the 
republic. Many commercial articles of common use were 
declared free of duty and the tariff on other articles was not- 
ably lowered whereby the economic conditions were improved. 
The limits of Montevideo were extended and the city was pro- 
vided with better lights. Berro proved to be one of the best 
administrators of the Oriental Republic. 

His term of office having ended, the war of the triple 
alliance against Francis S. Lopez, the despot of Paraguay, 
was fought, lasting from 1865 to 1870 and demanding active 
service also on the part of Uruguay. The following two 
years, up to 1872, were full of revolutionary movements, full 
of general disturbances and bloody fights in the republic so 
that but little or nothing could be done in the way of public 
improvements and progress. When then President Thomas 
Gomensoro established peace between the contending parties 
tranquility returned and with it prosperity — agriculture was 
successful, industry and commerce began to revive, railroads 
were built and completed. However, yellow fever appeared 
again and wrought havoc among the population ; even a min- 
ister of the government succumbed to the terrible plague. 

In 1876 Colonel L. Latorre made himself dictator of the 
Oriental Republic. His first acts of government gave prom- 
ise of an honest and decent administration and caused con- 
fidence to return. He made country life tolerable by pursu- 
ing the bandits that infested the rural districts and by putting 
a stop to robberies. Latorre organized a public school sys- 
tem and improved commercial affairs. However, in spite of 
his beneficial endeavors so much opposition arose against him 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 511 



that he declined to serve any longer and declared the Orientals 
ungovernable. This declaration was more fully verified in 
the eighties when one president-elect had to abdicate after the 
other. As the revolutionary disturbances wiped the adminis- 
trations away and the many changes of governments increased 
the general disorder, Uruguay was in a constant turmoil. 

Dr. Julius Herrera who was 
elected president in 1890, was 
a talented lawyer and known 
as such all over the country. 
Herrera became one of the ab- 
lest and most enlightened ad- 
ministrators of the republic. 
During his term of office the 
country passed through a trou- 
blesome financial crisis that 
had been occasioned by previ- 
ous administrations and revo- 
lutions and that affected com- 
merce and all the industries. 
The president did all in his power to alleviate the financial 
strain and was partially successful. 

With the termination of Herrera's term in 1894 revolu- 
tionary movements again broke out and disturbed the public 
order until John L. Cuestas took charge of the administration 
in 1897. Cuestas' great achievement was the construction of 
the Montevideo wharf whereby a real harbor was created. He 
laid the first stone to the great work July 18th, 1901, and thus 
opened an era of prosperity for the fatherland. Says a his- 
torian : "The act alone of having inaugurated the grand work 
of the harbor, is sufficient reason why the name of President 
Cuestas should pass into posterity." 

In 1903 Dr. Joseph -Batlle was elected president to suc- 
ceed Dr. Cuestas. In the beginning of the following year a 
revolution to overthrow him broke out, lasting about that 




DR. JULIUS HERRERA 



512 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



whole year. Seven bloody and destructive battles were fought 
in which the most revolutionary leaders were killed, and then 
peace was made. When the oriental family was again recon- 
ciled President Batlle could dedicate himself to the works of 
peace. He laid the corner-stones of various public buildings, 
— of the legislative palace, of a business college, of a medical 
school, etc. When the public treasury had partly recovered 
from the loss the last revolution had caused, the government 
resolved to make another loan, bringing the total foreign debt 
up to $121,000,000. In 1906 the first electric lines were laid 

in Montevideo, and it was resolved 
to enlarge the railroad system of the 
republic. 

In 1907 Dr. Claudius Williman 
was elected president for a term of 
four years. He initiated an era of 
peace and prosperity which continued 
during his administration and was 
fruitful in material progress both for 
the capital and the country. Joseph 
Batlle who had been his predecessor, 
also became his successor and was 
President of Uruguay inaugurated March 1st, 1811, to serve 
a second term. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

Uruguay has an area of 72,210 square miles and although 
it is the smallest of the South American republics, it is larger 
than New York and West Virginia combined. It has a pop- 
ulation of 1,042,686 or 14.3 persons to the square mile. 

The most notable feature of Uruguay is its extent of long 
rolling plains, covering almost the entire length of the country, 
occasionally broken by low mountain ranges and copiously 
watered by numerous streams. By reason of its peculiar 
topography the Oriental Republic is naturally suited for both 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



513 



sheep and cattle raising which is its principal industry. 
Numerous meat-packing houses are located throughout its 
territory. Agriculture is practiced to a considerable extent, 
nearly all of the cereals being raised, although mostly for home 
consumption, only a small quantity being until recently avail- 
able for export. In the forests are found a number of excellent 
cabinet and other woods, noted for their beauty and desirabil- 
ity, while the mountains contain silver, copper, and gold. 

The constitution that was formulated in 1829 and ap- 
proved by Argentina and Brazil, is still in vogue. The senate 
and house of representatives compose the general assembly in 
which all legislative power is vested. The president is chosen 
by the general assembly for a term of four years and may not 
be re-elected for the term immediately following his own. 
The republic is divided politically into 19 departments which 
are subdivided into sections and districts. The representa- 
tives of the executive power in the departments are the jefes 
politicos and de policia, appointed by the president of the re- 
public. Besides them, there is in each department an inten- 
dente municipal assisted by a council whose members are 
elected by direct vote. 

The principal cities and their populations are Montevideo, 
350,000 ; Paysandu, 20,000 ; Salto, 20,000 ; Mercedes, 16,000 ; 
and San Jose, 12,000. 

Uruguay is like Argentina chiefly an agricultural and pas- 
toral country and, being in practically the same latitude as the 
sister republic across the river La Plata, is affected by the same 
conditions. It is pleasant to note, therefore, that the pros- 
perity so characteristic of the larger Argentine Republic is 
likewise reflected in the smaller Oriental. v 

The trade statistics of Uruguay show that since 1903 
there has been a steady increase in the foreign commerce — 
both in imports and exports — and that with only the excep- 
tion of the year 1906 the balance of trade was in favor of the 
republic. In 1909 this balance of trade, i. e. the surplus of 

33 



514 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the exports over the imports, was $8,978,256. In 1911 the 
total value of the Uruguayan foreign trade was $94,005,151.76, 
of which total $47,687,115.84 were imports and $46,318,035.92 
were exports. Uruguay exports more products of its pastoral 
than of its agricultural industry. However, the crops of grain 
are large and the factories for the preparation of meat prod- 
ucts are kept busy during the year. During 1909 the follow- 
ing live stock was exported from the Uruguayan ports: 
38,481 head of cattle, 42,063 sheep, and 8864 horses. Uruguay 
is essentially a pastoral country, 94 per cent of its exports 
being the products of its herds and flocks and 97 per cent of 
its area being devoted to the pastoral industry; for of the 
something more than 42,500,000 acres of land in Uruguay, 
practically 2,000,000 acres are devoted to agriculture, 1,650,- 
000 acres are occupied by the forests, and the rest, or about 
39,000,000 acres, is used for pastures. Of the agricultural 
products wheat is raised most plentifully, then follow corn, 
barley, oats, linseed, and birdseed. — Of the great estancias, 
or grass farms, devoted to the raising of live stock, the Ger- 
man Liebig Company owns seven in Uruguay for the supply 
of its extract factory. The killing season commences early 
in January and lasts until June; 252,630 cattle were slaugh- 
tered during the year 1907. The killing is done under the 
inspection of an expert of the company and great care is exer- 
cised in the selection of the animals. 

The Pan American Railway Company is pushing its work 
with renewed activity and an increased force of workmen and 
employes. The section of the line between Trinidad and 
Durazno will be opened to traffic in a short while and, if neces- 
sary, the company will doubtless be granted a reasonable ex- 
tension of time in which to complete and open to traffic the 
entire line. The company has agreed to settle agricultural 
colonists on 40,000 hectares, or 98,800 acres, of land along its 
line between Colonia and San Luis. 

A German steamship company, using petroleum as fuel, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



515 



has been organized to operate between Montevideo, Buenos 
Aires, Asuncion and intermediate points on t e La Plata, 
Parana, Uruguay, and Paraguay Rivers. The first of these 
steamers, called Herman Krabb, is an 800-ton vessel and has 
a speed of from 10 to 12 miles an hour. All the vessels of this 
company will fly the flag of the republic of Uruguay. 

Since 1890 the city of El Salto has been one of the prin- 
cipal apicultural centers of the Oriental Republic. One bee- 
keeper, who had a number of colonies of Italian bees, pro- 
duced at last spring's harvest 4000 kilos of an excellent quality 
of honey. There is a large number of beekeepers in this 
neighborhood, who have only a few hives, but the yield of 
honey per hive is always very large and of a fine quality. 

The health statistic is very favorable to the Oriental Re- 
public. The latest statistics show that there are in France 
93 deaths to 100 births, in Spain 80, in Chile 74, in England 
59, in Germany 58, in Argentina 45, and in Uruguay only 40. 



516 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




MALE RHEA, OR SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICH 

The specimen of the Rhea Americana shown in this photo- 
graph is exceptional in coloring, the plumage being much lighter 
than is usually the case. The cocks are generally larger than 
the hens and have longer and finer feathers, which are dyed 
and used for ornamental purposes. Sometimes the plumes o 
the African ostrich, used for ornamenting ladies' hats, are 
added to and built up by using portions of the rhea feathers. 
The poorer grades of the feathers are used for making fly 
brushes, feather dusters, etc. The male rhea generally col- 
lects a harem of hens and each hen contributes her share to 
a common nest, which is often found to contain as many as 
40 to 50 eggs. It is the male bird that sits and hatches the 
eggs and afterwards takes care of the brood. The eggs are 
frequently as much as 5 to 6 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches 
in diameter and weigh as much as a pound and a half. Al- 
though usually rather shy and easily frightened, the cock often 
shows great courage in protecting the young and will not hesi- 
tate to attack a man or horse in defense of the brood. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 517 



THE REPUBLIG OF PARAGUAY. 

1814 to 1912. 

We left the history of Paraguay when Dr. Francia who 
had introduced ancient Roman methods into his government, 
was in power. In 1844 these -methods were changed and the 
executive power was vested in a president who was elected 
for a term of ten years. Charles Anion Lopez was the first 
president, was less despotic than his predecessor and entered 
into commerical relations with foreign nations, lifting the 
country out of its isolated condition in which Dr. Francia had 
kept it. However, he established an arsenal in Asuncion, the 
capital, and began to put the republic on a formidable war 
footing. Upon the completion of his first term he was re- 
elected, but he died September 10th, 1862, before his second 
term was completed, having conducted the Paraguayan affairs 
eighteen years. His son Francis S. Lopez 
succeeded him in the presidency in 1862 and 
continued his father's war preparations. In 
1864 he had 80,000 cavalry and infantry men 
at his command with 130 guns and abundant 
war material and dreamed of becoming a 
great conqueror and emperor. The following 
year he caused the disastrous war with the 
triple alliance which ended in the downfall of his power and 
in his death March 1st, 1870. A historian makes it clear why 
the war lasted so long, namely five years, and why it became 
so disastrous to Paraguay, when he writes : "The war lasted 
so very long because never has a people defended itself more 
heroically than the Paraguayan. Before the war Paraguay 
had had 1,200,000 inhabitants ; after the same it had 148,000 
females and 12,000 males, or a total of 160,000 persons, only 




518 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



about the eighth part of the original population having sur- 
vived." 

After the war a committee of 21 undertook the re- 
establishment of the governmental affairs. It negotiated a 
treaty of peace with the allied powers which was signed June 
20th, 1870, and called a congress of representatives of the 
people. This congress, having met November 25th of the 
same year, drafted a constitution in which the presidential 
powers were stipulated and the government was completely 

reorganized. It intrusted a triumvi- 
rate with the provisional adminis- 
tration and in the following year 
Don Joseph S. Jovellanos was elected 
president by popular vote and inau- 
gurated December 18th, 1871. Un- 
der his wise administration and that 
of his successors Paraguay recuper- 
ated from past calamities and gradu- 
ally took its place among the nations 
of America. In 1908 President Ben- 
igno Ferreiro completed his term of 
office and Don Emil G. Navero suc- 
ceeded him. On June 19th, 1912, Sr. 
Edward Schaerer was elected president of the republic and 
Sr. Peter Robadilla vice-president. 

The constitution of Paraguay provides for a republican 
form of government, with the usual division of legislative, 
executive, and judicial authorities. The national congress is 
composed of the senate and the chamber of debuties, both 
elected by direct popular vote. The president and vice-pres- 
ident of the republic are elected by electors, chosen for that 
purpose, for a term of four years. The president is assisted 
by a cabinet of five ministers and during recess of congress 
by a standing committee composed of 2 senators and 4 depu- 




DON EDWARD SCHAERER 
President of Paraguay 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 519 



ties whom the president consults on all matters pertaining to 
congress. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

Paraguay has an area of 171,815 square miles, equal to 
that of the states of California and Maine together, and it 
has a population of about 800,000, or 4.6 per square mile. 
For administrative purposes the country is divided into 84 
departments, each under a Jefe politico appointed by the pres- 
ident for a term of four years. Asuncion, the capital, has a 
population of 55,000. Other towns of some importance are 
Villa Rica with 30,000 inhabitants, Concepcion with 25,000, 
Encarnacion with 8500, San Estanislao and Caazapa with 
7000 each. 

The only railway in Paraguay is that of the Paraguay 
Central Railway Company which runs from Asuncion to Pira- 
po, a distance of 155 miles. This line will be continued to the 
Argentine frontier and there connect with a railroad from 
Buenos Aires so as to establish direct communication between 
the two capitals which are about 650 miles apart. 

Paraguay with its subtropical climate considerably mod- 
ified and made healthful by several mountain chains and an 
extensive hydrographic system, produces the most of the 
products of the tropical and temperate zones successfully. 
The extensive plain of the Gran Chaco affords excellent pas- 
turage for cattle and the slopes of the mountains of the coun- 
try are covered with luxuriant forests where many useful 
woods and medicinal plants are to be found. Oranges, tobac- 
co, coffee, rice, cotton, manioc, and sugar are grown and 
exported. The most important articles of export, however, 
are beef products, the valuable quebracho wood — used exten- 
sively for tanning and also as railway ties — and the Para- 
guay tea called mate which is mostly exported to the other 
South American republics where it is a popular beverage. 
Mate of which 17,600,000 pounds are gathered annually, is 



520 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the principal crop of Paraguay ; about one-half of this quan- 
tity is exported. The plant is the Ilex Paraguayensis which 
grows wild in immense tracts in the northern and eastern sec- 
tions of the republic. The leaves are gathered and furnish 
the aromatic mate tea. 

The balance of trade for years was against the country, 
the imports having been of greater value than the exports. 
But this adverse condition was steadily improved so that in 
1909 the trade balance was in favor of the republic, as the fol- 
lowing statement shows : 





IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


1909 


$3,655,366 


$4,982,814 



In 1910 the Paraguayan imports, by countries of origin, 
and the exports to those countries were as follows : 



COUXTRTE! 



United Kingdom 
.Germany . . . 
Argentina . . . 

Spain 

Italy 

United States . 
France .... 
Belgium .... 
Austria-Hungary 
Uruguay . . . . 

Brazil 

Other Countries 

Total . . . 



IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


$2,625,490 


$ 15,213 


1,111,714 


881,319 


678,956 


2,783,693 


366,189 


309,055 


335.620 


84,177 


310,540 




289,342 


24,852 


149.738 


12,024 


146,758 




44.712 


518,056 


42,262 


155,086 


1 5 1,467 


5,590 


$6,252,489 


$4,789,065 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 521 



Paraguay exports the following articles: Dried meat, 
beef extract, quebracho extract, hides, horns, oranges, tanga- 
rines, timber, quebracho, tobacco, yerba mate. 

Paraguay is eminently an agricultural country, and there 
is scarcely a product of the tropical and subtropical zones that 
can not be cultivated to advantage within its borders. The 
great Chaco region is ideal for the growing of cotton of a long 
fiber and superior quality, while that favored section contains 
also a vast amount of forestal wealth and stock-producing pos- 
sibilities. Prof. Fiebrig, director of the agricultural farm of 
the government of Paraguay recently made a report of a trip 
of investigation to Villarica, in which the farms and farming 
methods of foreigners and natives were examined and special 
note made of the cultivation of yerba mate, or Paraguayan tea, 
on the plantation of Sr. Mahaux who is engaged in the grow- 
ing of this shrub in the neighborhood of Villarica on a large 
scale. The questions of proper soil and climatic conditions 
were taken up, and it was shown by the experiences of two 
persons now occupied in its cultivation that neither water- 
soaked nor acid lands rich in humus are suitable for growing 
yerba mate. 



522 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




KIR 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



523 




BRAZIL, 1859 to 191 1: MONARGHY UNTIL 1889. 

We concluded the revolutionary 
period of Brazil when a regency 
was in charge of the government 
during the minority of the son of 
Dom Pedro I., who was heir to the 
throne. The regency continued in 
the government nine years, until 
the year 1840, when the young em- 
peror became of age and was 
crowned, receiving the title Dom 
Pedro II. Among the leading 
facts of his mild and beneficent 
reign are •the war of the triple alli- 
ance with Paraguay, in which Bra- 
zil was a principal factor; the 
opening of all the rivers to foreign 
trade ; the giving of subsidies to 
steamship companies ; and the grad- 
ual abolition of slavery. At the close of Brazil's colonial times 
we stated the fact that African slaves constituted a very large 
per cent of the population. Their setting free began in 1871 
when the law was passed which provided that after the date of 
the bill all children of slave women should be considered free. 
The same law provided also for an emancipation fund out of 
which the ransom of slaves owned by private persons was to 
be paid. In 1888 the remainder of the slaves, estimated at 
500,000, were set free, but these without compensations to 
owners. Thus Brazil emancipated her slaves without a war. 

When Dom Pedro II. had reigned nearly half a century, 
namely from 1840 to 1889, the people of Brazil resolved to 
change the monarchical form of government to a republican. 



DOM PEDRO II. 
A high-minded and liberal ruler 
When in 1889 the Brazilians 
wanted a republican form of govern- 
ment, he chose rather to abdicate the 
throne than have his countrymen 
shed their blood. He died in Paris 
in 1891 



524 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



This fundamental change was likewise accomplished without 
bloodshed; for November 15th, 1889, the emperor abdicated 
and the republic was proclaimed. 

United States of Brazil, i88p to icjii. 

Marshal Theodoro Da Fonseco was placed at the head of 
the provisional government which was to continue in office 
until a constituent congress had formulated a constitution. 
The new republic was called United States of Brazil and Da 
Fonseca was elected its first constitutional president and in- 
augurated February 24th, 1891. The president, however, re- 
signed his position November 23rd of the same year in favor 
of Vice-president Florian Peixoto. After him the presiden- 
tial chair was occupied by Dr. Prudente de Moracs Barros in 
1894, by Dr. Campos Salles in 1896, by Dr. Rodrigues Aloes 
in 1902, by Dr. Nilo Pecanha in June 1909, and by the present 
incumbent, Marshal Hermes da Fonseca, who was inaugurated 
November 15th, 1910. - . 

By virtue of the constitution the republic of the United 
States of Brazil is a federal union of states, republican and 
representative. Brazil is thus one of the three federal repub- 
lics of South America, the other two being the United States 
of Venezuela and the Argentine Republic. The federal Bra- 
zilian government is composed of the legislative, executive, 
and judicial branches, the former branch consisting of two 
houses, the senate and the chamber of deputies. The senate 
has 63 members, 3 for each state and 3 for the federal dis- 
trict, elected by direct vote of the people and for a term of 
nine years ; but the senate is renewed by thirds every three 
years. The chamber of deputies has 212 members, elected in 
the same manner as the senators and in proportion of one for 
every 70,000 inhabitants. No state is, however, represented 
by fewer than four deputies. — The executive power is vested 
in a president, assisted by a cabinet of seven ministers. The 
president and vice-president are elected for a term of four 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 525 



years by direct vote and may not be re-elected for a term 
immediately following their own. All male citizens over 21 
years of age are entitled to vote. The salary of the president 
is 120,000 milreis, equivalent to about 36,000 gold, per annum. 
— ■ The judicial power is vested in the national supreme court 
which is composed of 15 justices who are appointed by the 
president with the consent and advise of the senate, and in 
federal judges in all the states, who are appointed upon rec- 
ommendations of the supreme court. All these judges hold 
office for life. 

The Brazilian union is composed of 20 states, one territory, 
and one federal district in which Rio de Janeiro, the capital, 
is situated. The states are entirely autonomous in their inter- 
ior administration, even to the extent of levying their own 
export duties and as regards stamp taxes, postal rates etc. 
The federal district, with the capital, is governed by a prefect 
who is appointed by the president and assisted by a municipal 
council elected by the people. 

Part of the national territory ordinarily known as the 
Acre country, was acquired from Bolivia by the treaty of 
November 17th, 1903, for the sum of $10,000,000. The repub- 
lic of Brazil is the largest country of South and North Amer- 
ica ; for it extends over an area of 3,218,130 square miles 
which is 191,341 square miles larger than the United States 
of North America proper. Including Alaska into the United 
States our republic is about 400,000 square miles larger than 
Brazil. 

Though Brazil lies entirely in the tropical and temperate 
zones, yet the climate of a considerable area of the country is 
modified by numerous high table-lands and mountain chains 
and by its vast and extensive hydrographic system. The ex- 
tensive fertile plains produce all of the fruits of the tropics 
and contain luxuriant and almost impenetrable forests. In 
many portions of the Amazon the great trees destroy each 
other by their close crowding. In the province of Maranhao 



526 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



the roots of plants stretch out with such firmness and such 
abundance from the shores of pools that the pedestrian may 
be walking on them over the water supposing himself to be 
on solid ground. The vegetation of the coast is principally 
mangrove whose seeds in this moist warmth begin to sprout 
before they drop to the ground. Trees which are split in the 
neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro, often send forth shoots and 
branches immediately. Further back from the coast are 
graceful palms of many kinds. Further inland still is an 
immense profuseness of vegetation, awkwardly crowded to- 
gether and grotesquely intertwined and crossed. Cocoa trees, 
the vanilla, different kinds of pepper, cinamon, and cassia 
abound. In the more remote interior and on the vast pampas, 
or southern prairies, solitary myrtles, numerous varieties of 
pleasing fruits, and now and then a cactus add variety. The 
forests abound in useful and ornamental trees, while the cocoa 
tree thrives on the seashore and supplies an important item 
of commerce. Other trees are the brazil wood which is a 
valuable timber and yields a fine dye, the rosewood tree, the 
trumpet tree, the laurel, the soap tree, the palm, and the India- 
rubber tree, or hevea, which is tapped every day and will be 
described a little later. Other important products of the soil 
are coffee, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, mate, oranges, manioc, 
rice, maize, and spices. The forest wealth of Brazil has as 
yet hardly been tapped and it is said that no other region in 
the world contains such a variety of useful and ornamental 
timber and medicinal plants. Large quantities of precious 
metals and minerals are found and Brazil is one of the few 
countries which possess diamond mines. 

Of animal life there is an unparalleled variety and abund- 
ance. The plains are covered with horses and horned cattle, 
many of them wild; and large flocks of goats and sheep as 
well as immense herds of swine are pasturing there. Cumas, 
jaguars, deer, several native animals of the wolf family, 
sloths, opossums, porcupines, armadillos, peccaries, capibaras, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 527 



monkeys of different kinds, and vampire bats are in great 
abundance. Of serpents there are anacondas and other 
pythons, rattlesnakes, jararacas, and many others. Alligators 
and turtles abound in the Amazon and its tributaries, while 
tortoises and terrapin infest the land. The Brazilian birds of 
prey are vultures, condors, eagles, hawks, and owls, while the 
birds of beautiful plumage are in infinite variety, including 
many species of humming birds, parrots, cockatoos, and the 
brilliant toucan. Then there are the oriole, the uraponga, 
and the rhea, a kind of ostrich. Of fine plumaged wading 
birds there are ducks, geese, pelicans etc. The insects are 
beautiful, brilliant, and abundant, and the manifold butter- 
flies are dazzling in colors. While enormous spiders abound 
and the scorpions and centipedes are formidable, the bees are 
stingless. In the rivers fishes are found in great abundance. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

Brazil, according to the last published census, has a pop- 
ulation of 20,515,000, equal to 6.4 per square mile, as against 
30.9 per square mile in the United States. The language of 
the Brazilians is the Portuguese. The principal cities with 
their estimated populations are Rio de Janeiro 1,000,000; Sao 
Paulo (Peruambuco) 400,000, Ricife (Pernambuco) 150,- 
000, Sao Salvador (Bahia) 350,000, Belem (Para) 200,000, 
Porto Alegre 100,000, Ceara 50,000, Manaos 50,000, Santos 
41,000. 

Registrations of immigrants landing in Brazilian ports 
during the year 1909 show a total for the whole country of 
85,410. Southern Brazil continues to draw the larger portion 
of immigrants ; for 92 per cent of the total registration was 
in the southern ports. In the south of the country are large 
prosperous German colonies that were established years ago. 
The immigrants arriving in recent years are, as those who 
come to Argentina and Chile, mostly from Spain and Italy. 
Of the total number entering Brazil in 1909, 23,895 placed 



528 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



themselves at the disposition of the federal government at 
whose expense they were housed at five points of entry, sent 
to various colonies and installed on small plots of land, most- 
ly in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, 
and Parana. Other immigrants were transported and placed 
on parcels of land by the different states. 

The total foreign trade of Brazil for the year 1911 was 
1,799,488,186 milreis paper, of which total 795,563,450 milreis 
were imports and 1,003,924,736 milreis were exports. 

The Brazilian paper milreis has the value of 32.4 cents 
United States gold. At this rate the foreign commerce for 
the years 1910 and 1911 was as follows: 





IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


TOTAL 


1910 

1911 


$237,291,658 
257,762,557 


$304,369,957 
325,271,614 


$535,66l,6l5 
583,034,171 


In 1911 the imports by principal countries of origin, and 
the exports to those countries were as follows: 


COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


Portugal 

Italy .. . . 


$74,695,592 
43,180,830 
34,602,757 

22,744,839 
19,594,486 
13,832,400 
10,715,701 
9,382,106 
5,412,582 
3,777,460 

3,455,559 
2,985,952 
2,808,829 
2,376,344 
2,182,390 
1,650,752 
4,354,078 


$48,920,995 

47,212,339 

115,855,767 
25,739,496 
12,796,252 
1,487,288 

7,796,618 

3,747,560 
4,444.054 
16,759.363 


India 










1,676,291 


Other Countries 

Total 


26,447,406 
12,391,185 


$257,762,557 


$325,271.61; 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



529 



The following table gives the amounts and values of a 
number of principal articles of export for the year 1911 : 



ARTICLES 


QUANTITIES 


VALUES 




11,257,802 bags 


$196,515,379 


Kubber 


36,547 tons 


73,352,Il6 




61,834 tons 


9>640,346 


rr I'rioc 


31,020 tons 


0,79 1, 09O 




39,994 tons 


7,993.435 


Tobacco 


10,409 tons 


4,703,346 




3,214 tons 


2,477,540 


Gold in bars 


4,290 kilos 


2 27^ 440 




14,647 tons 


2,109,436 


Sugar 


36,718 tons 


1,986,836 


Bran . . . 


54,109 tons 


1,796,392 


Brazil nuts . . . 


392,076 bu. 


I,28l,053 


Monazite sand 


3,687 tons 


954,870 


Manganese ore 


173,941 tons 


876,869 



Each bag of^ coffee weighs 60 kilos or 132.27 pounds ; the 
tons are metric tons. Coffee, the principal export article of 
Brazil, in 1911 went to the following countries: 



COUNTRIES 


BAGS 


VALUES 




4,444,973 


$77,512,293 




1,603,991 


31,752,936 


Netherlands 


1,413,412 


25,763,209 




967,679 


16,600,849 




874,928 


15,092,424 




270,114 


4,692,373 




225,187 


3,823,754 


Italy 


204,933 


3,48l,5l8 




1,052,587 


I7,8l6,020 


Total ............. 


11,257,802 


$196,515,379 



34 



530 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



Agriculture holds the first place among the productive 
occupations of Brazil, and the industries are related more 
closely to the agricultural than to other elemental factors of 
the country. The republic, combining, as it does, one of the 
most immense tropical areas of the world with its interior 




GOFFEE CULTURE IN BRAZIL 



tropical plateaus and with its fertile temperate areas in the 
southern states, has always relied upon field and forest as 
the great sources of its wealth. Of the principal products 
entering the market ; namely, rice, cotton, sugar, tobacco, Para- 
guay tea or mate, mandioca, cacao, coffee, and rubber, the kst 
two form the great export staples of Brazil. 

Coffee. The story goes that a Portuguese, Jao Alberto 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



531 



Castello Branco, in 1760 planted a coffee bush in Rio de Janei- 
ro. It was not, however, until 50 years had elapsed that Brazil 
began to be famous as one of the coffee producing countries 
and, thanks to its climate, soil, and similar factors, that mag- 
nificent country has become the great coffee producer of the 
world. 

The plant flourishes best in well-watered regions, in a 
subtropical climate, at an elevation of 1500 to 5000 feet, and 
in a rich soil. All these elements Brazil has to perfection, 
especially in the four states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, 
Espirito Santo, and Minas Geraes whose combined areas cover 
about one-eighth of the vast domain of the republic. From 
there the world receives at least four-fifths of its coffee. 

Healthy coffee trees produce from 12 to 16 buds which 
have, when they bloom, an exquisite perfume. No more beau- 
tiful sight can be imagined than a great coffee plantation dur- 
ing the flowering season. The trees cover hills and table- 
lands, and the air is laden with a delicate fragrance. Two 
days after full blossom the ground is covered with white flow- 
ers, and from the small stems of the trees groups of seeds 
issue which at first are yellow and to the touch coarse. When 
these ripen they take on color until they become the coffee ber- 
ries which look like very dark red berries. In each ripe berry 
there are two seeds or beans, convex on one side and flat on 
the other, each bean enclosed by a delicate silver colored skin, 
the two beans by a tough membrane and this by a pulp. In 
Brazil coffee trees blossom most fully in October, although 
they continue to flower more or less during several months. 
The crop is harvested in May or June when each tree yields 
four or five pounds of coffee ; some yield more. When the 
berry is ripe all other work on the plantation is dropped and 
every available person engages in the harvest. Brazil's aver- 
age crop may be estimated at 12,000,000 sacks (each sack 
weighing 133 pounds). These coffee regions of Brazil, how- 
ever, are representative of the highest agricultural develop- 



532 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ment and compare favorably with the wheat and corn fields of 
Argentina or with similar crop areas elsewhere. The other 
great product of the country is rubber. 

India Rubber, as it is generally called in text-books and 
official reports, is a native of Brazil and grows wild in its for- 
ests. Although efforts at cultivation have been successful 
and although the rubber product cultivated on modern plan- 
tations is cleaner and yields a higher graded substance, yet by 
far the greatest quantity of rubber exported from the coun- 
try is gathered from the forests of the northern interior, just 
as nature produces it, and the entire care of the rubber gath- 
erers has been given only to obtaining the juice from the 
native rubber trees. 

The Brazilian native speaks of barracha when he refers 
to the product of the hevea, the rubber tree par excellence. 
The hevea is indigenous to the region of the river Amazon 
and to the contiguous areas of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colom- 
bia, and Venezuela. The hevea being of slow growth and 
long life, becomes a large tree, having been found 12 feet in 
circumference. It requires low, rich, deep soil and abundant 
moisture and is not found in clumps, but rather scattered 
through the tropical forest. Other rubber trees are the Man- 
ihot and the Castilloa, while the shrub Guahule which is a 
native of Mexico, contains in each branch a pure rubber that 
can be used for every purpose to which the milk of the hevea 
is applied. 

Rubber is the cream or milk from the juice of these trees 
and shrubs. It is not the sap, as it plays a distinct part from 
the sap in nature's laboratory. Mixed with sulphur in proper 
proportions it produces the substance with which we are most 
familiar, the rubber of commerce. This retains the valuable 
properties of the pure article, at the same time it becomes 
easier to handle in manufacturing. 

Gathering rubber is largely a matter of native skill, the 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 533 



tree being tapped, the cream removed and coagulated, and 
this raw rubber is prepared for market. After the crude rub- 
ber reaches the factory it is manipulated into the form re- 
quired, by the admixture of different amounts of sulphur and 
by the application of different degrees of heat. Brazil con- 
trols the India Rubber production and trade, as the quantities 
exported from the ports of Ceara, Para, and Manaos are 
about one-half of the world's supply; on these depends the 
price for the raw material in the consuming markets. The 
United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium 
are the important buying countries. 

The cacao cultivation is carried on on about 40,000 acres 
with 10,000,000 trees in bearing. The average yield of each 
tree in its maturity is about six pounds of dried beans each 
season under present conditions. One estate reports a yield 
of 30 pounds per tree under favorable conditions. From the 
state of Bahia conies fully 80 per cent of the cacao produced 
in Brazil whose exportable surplus in 1908 amounted to near- 
ly 70,000,000 pounds, or over one-fifth of the world's supply. 

Besides the product of the plantations and the forests of 
magnificent Brazil the country has rich mineral deposits which 
will no doubt in the near future be much better exploited than 
they have been in the past, because the railroad system of the 
country is being extended and will afford an outlet to the 
manufacturing cities and to the seacoast. Gold, diamonds, 
manganese, and monazite are found in paying quantities and 
are already among the most staple and substantial exports 
of the country. A quicksilver mine was recently discovered 
in the state of Minas Geraes. Brazil is one of the few coun- 
tries possessing mines of quicksilver and diamonds. 

We will close this lengthy report with a glance at the 
railways and interior zvaterways of Brazil. The railroads 
were originally built with the great purpose in view of bring- 
ing the products of a contributing interior to the nearest sea- 



534 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



port and of distributing to this interior the merchandise 
brought in from abroad. Recently, however, the republic has 
felt the great need of connecting these various systems by 
interior railroads running north and south, both to afford 
interior communication independent of the ocean and to stim- 
ulate internal commerce and settlements. The total length of 
railways in Brazil at the beginning of 1912 was 13,750 miles, 
and new lines are in construction and are being planned. 

That magnificent republic has been favored by Providence 
with a most wonderful system of fluvial arteries. Brazil has 
within its territory not only the largest river system, both in 
area and in length, in the world, but has also perhaps more 
navigable rivers than any other country. The mighty Amazon, 
4000 miles long, is navigable almost in its entire length, not 
simply in Brazil, but in Peru also where it is called Maranyon 
and where it originates. Moreover most of the Amazon's 
very lengthy tributaries of which there are seven in Brazil, 
each of which 1000 miles long, are navigable, while in the 
southern section of the country the Paraguay, Uruguay, and 
Parana rivers are all navigated. The republic has over 
10,000 miles of navigable waterways which are open to river 
steamers and ocean going vessels and, in addition to these, 
20,000 miles which are navigable for light-draft and flat-bot- 
tom boats only. Several steamship companies maintain a reg- 
ular service between points on these rivers, plying on the 
Amazon, Negro, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Para, Jurua, and 
Javary. Direct communication is maintained between North 
American and European ports and Para (Belem) near the 
mouth of the Amazon, Manaos which lies 1000 miles up the 
river, and even Iquitos in Peru which is still 1300 miles further 
inland. 

The favorable geographical position of Brazil in the cen- 
ter of South America, places it in touch with all the republics 
of that continent, except Chile, and makes it acessible from the 
United States, Europe, and Africa. With a coastline on the 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 535 



Atlantic Ocean of more than 5000 miles Brazil possesses a 
number of excellent bays and harbors on which are situated 
14 seaports. The port of Rio de Janeiro has the largest har- 
bor and it is world-renowned for its scenic beauty. 

The government is very much interested in the construc- 
tion of railways and in the traffic of river navigation. The 
budget of Brazil for 1913 appropriates, in round numbers, the 
sum of $65,000,000 for the use of public works, a very large 
part of which will be used in railway construction carried on 
in accordance with a general plan to meet the special needs of 
the different states of the republic. One of the lines to be 
built in southern Brazil, which will have an approximate length 
of 227 kilometers, will open up a rich mining and agricultural 
section of the country. Another of the projected lines will 
start from a point near Manaos on the Amazon and will extend 
up the Negro river to the Venezuelan frontier. These lines 
and many others which are in project will entail costs of 
$21,000, $25,000, and $30,000 per kilometer (1 kilometer is 
equal to 0.62,137 mile, or to a little less than T 7 T of a mile). 



536 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 537 



REPUBLIG OF GOLOMBIA. 

1831 to 1911. 

The first two years of republican life were characterized 
by ardent endeavors to give the country a constitution. When 
Simon Bolivar, the honored hero and liberator, died December 
17th, 1830, General Urdaneta, the vice-president, became act- 
ing president. The liberator's death did not bring the har- 
mony between the contending factions, which he had desired. 
The. discontentment with Urdaneta's government increased 
daily and assumed so great proportions as to endanger his 
position, though two juntas of eminent citizens wished to keep 
him in office. To satisfy the people Urdaneta allowed them 
more privileges. — Venezuela was also at this time urged to 
return to the Colombian Confederation, but neither at this 
time was the latter's commissioner received by the Venezuelan 
government. Bolivar's death had in Venezuela become a bat- 
tle won for the partisans of separation who installed the first 
constituent congress in that country March 18th, 1831, and 
elected Paez president for four years. Also Ecuador strove 
to separate and to become absolutely independent. April, 
1831, Urdaneta's enemies had gained so much power that he 
abdicated and left the country. It was said his services had 
been equal to those of the best officials of New Granada. The 
council of state entrusted the supreme power to Vice-president 
General Gayecedo. 

Gayecedo's Administration. 

The new acting president was not in a more favorable 
position than his predecessor had been. The military leaders 
as well as those of various political factions made demands, 
and demands of quite opposing character. To satisfy as many 
as possible Gayecedo called into his cabinet leaders of the dif- 



538 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ferent factions ; however, no one was satisfied with the cab- 
inet. Nevertheless with universal applause was the order 
received which called a national congress for November 15th 
that should give the country a constitution, appoint the high 
officials, and primarily bring order into the public affairs. 
Gayecedo proceeded prudently, but his prudence was called 
weakness by men of various parties. Some military officers 
planned to overthrow the government and establish a state of 
dictature. But the president in a meeting called, laid articles 
of agreement before them which they were asked to sign ; many 
signed. The rest, some 150, received their passports and were 
obliged to leave the country. Thereupon Gayecedo handed in 
his resignation which, however, the state council unanimously 
refused to accept. 

On the isthmus of Panama attempts to separate that de- 
partment from the rest of the country were already made in 
those early years. Espinar who had been governor of the 
isthmus, had attempted it and now his successor, Colonel 
Alzuru, pursued the same object by flattering the natives, the 
negroes, and the general populace. As it was evident Alzuru 
would revolt Herrera was ordered to subdue him. The for- 
mer prepared for an attack, but was defeated in battle August 
27th, 1831, was captured and, in company with a few compan- 
ions, shot, paying for the crimes he had committed. 

The constituent convention whose opening date had been 
advanced one month, namely to October 15th, was by all 
looked for as the salvation out of the political difficulties. For 
the country was in a sore plight, not simply on account of the 
general unrest, but also because various provinces protested 
openly against departmental divisions. Florez of Quito de- 
manded the annexation of the Cauca territory to Ecuador, and 
the central towns got ready to defend the territorial rights of 
New Granada. When the eighty-nine deputies who were 
elected to the convention had assembled, Gayecedo delivered 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 539 



his message and again he offered his resignation which, how- 
ever, was not yet accepted. In one of the first sessions several 
propositions were presented for discussion, one concerning 
the organization of New Granada as an independent state, 
Venezuela and Ecuador having already left the old confedera- 
tion, and another concerning the suppression of departmental 
divisions and of general districts. November 10th the follow- 
ing bill was adopted: "The provinces of the center of the 
Colombian Confederation constitute a state with the name of 
New Granada; this present convention shall give it a consti- 
tution and shall organize the government." November 29th 
Gayecedo presented his resignation once more, he was then 
relieved, and General J. M. Obando elected in his stead. The 
convention had secretly discussed a bill to the effect of wiping 
from the military lists all the names of those leaders and 
.officers who had taken part in the revolution of 1830 and of 
banishing them. This bill was adopted and was sanctioned by 
President Obando. 318 names of officers were wiped from the 
lists of whom 230 went into exile. The convention took great 
interest in organizing the government and paid special atten- 
tion to financial affairs and to the suspension of payments of 
interest on the old Colombian debt, while arrangements with 
Venezuela and Ecuador were being adjusted. 

The government was authorized to recognize Ecuador as 
an independent state ; but both states should respect their for- 
mer limits and should arrange the division of the debt of the 
old confederation. This resolution, however, was not recog- 
nized by Florez of Quito who had already proclaimed the 
incorporation of the Cauca province into his state. 

February 29th, 1832, the constitution of the republic of 
New Granada was adopted. Thus Bolivar's Colombia dis- 
appeared; her memories, however, do not perish. Her life 
was short, but her glories are immortal. As for her three 
daughters, they were emancipated under the shadow of her 
flag and they are free. As they separate they tear the flag 



540 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



of Colombia asunder and each one carries a piece away to 
wear it as gala attire in her new republican life. 

1. REPUBLIC OF NEW GRANADA, 1832 to 1858. 

By this name the country was known 26 years. Of the 
eight administrations of these years we shall record only those 
which rendered the country the best services and of the very 
many revolutions only a few to show how the Granadians 
could fight. 

The country was divided into 15 provinces. The presi- 
dent was to be elected for four years, one vice-president for 
the first two and another for the second two years. The ex- 
ecutive powers were restricted by a state council whose mem- 
bers congress elected. The constitution further prescribed 
that certain high offices could be filled only by Granadians. 
In the judicial branch of administration the time of service 
was limited to four years, while formerly the judges had been 
immovable as long as they served well. The convention elected 
General Santander president and Dr. Marquez first vice- 
president. 

President Santander's administration sent commissioners 
to Ecuador to negotiate in the matter of boundary lines. As 
no agreement could be reached both sides appealed to arms. 
Ex-President J. M. Obando marched at the head of 1500 men 
against the town of Pasto in the Cauca territory which Ecua- 
dor had annexed. Owing to the inefficiency of various Ecua- 
dorian forces and to the inexperience of the commanders 
Obando took Pasto. The news of this event produced deep 
impressions in Quito and the congress of Ecuador accepted 
the peace proposals which Obando offered. A treaty of peace, 
of good friendship and alliance was signed December 8th, 
1832, by which the Cauca territory returned to New Granada. 

President Santander paid attention to primary education, 
opening schools for the instruction of 20,000 boys and one 
school for girls who had been sadly neglected in bygone years. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



541 



To meet the expenses of instruction, including those of three 
universities, the income from minor convents which had been 
closed by law, was applied. — The three republics which had 
constituted the Colombian Confederation, consented to the 
division and payment of its debt. The adjustment made New 
Granada pay 50 per cent, Venezuela 2%y 2 per cent, and Ecua- 
dor 21 per cent of the debt. When years later the debt was 
cancelled the payments made by New Granada amounted to 
the sum of $102,948,737. So much the country paid for its 
independence in money, and how much had it paid in blood ? — 
Dr. F. Soto was appointed to regulate the financial system of 
the republic and owing to his activity and proverbial honesty 
he brought order out of chaos readily, eradicating many of 
the complications that had been inherited from the confedera- 
tion government. The public income of the year 1834 
amounted to $2,327,310 and the expenditures to $2,517,700, 
one-half of which was absorbed by the standing army and 
navy. — In 1836 a census was taken which showed that the 
country had a population of 1,686,038, being an increase of 
460,440 persons in ten years. 

In the years 184.0 to 1841 New Granada was full of rev- 
olutions. General Herran fought ten pitched battles, twelve 
leaders strove for the supreme power, and the capture of 
Bogata, the capital, was scarcely prevented. A writer gives 
an aspect of the country of those years in the following words : 
"When the friars who are as brave as fanatical for their cause, 
saw many of their colleagues suspended from gallows, their 
homes burned, their cemeteries desolated, their families led 
away with the heterogeneous crowd as war booty, they had 
to take these calamities unconditionally, just as they were. 
And soon the war of waylaying followed, the war of ambush 
in which anyone offered his life under the condition of killing 
two, — a scandalous war in which they fought without fear, 
in which they died without honor. The legitimate chiefs gave 
the war such a character that the revolutionists of yesterday 



542 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



were not rebels today; for they had to defend their home- 
steads which were laid waste in the name of the law." 

In the year 1842 the government of Venezuela made the 
friendly reclamation to the New Granadian government to 
deliver the remains of Simon Bolivar which, according to the 
great liberator's last will, should rest in Caracas, his native city. 
Naturally the Granadian government had to consent to it and 
it commissioned the governor of Santa Marta, General J. 
Posada, to deliver the sacred deposit to the Venezuelan com- 
missioners. The solemn act of exhumation and delivery took 
place November 20th, 1842. On this occasion General Posada 
held a short speech whose closing sentences run thus : "Take, 
sirs, the precious treasure for which you have come. Carry it 
away to that land of yours privileged by chance ; for know ye 
and may your people know that solely the high regard which 
the Granadian government and people entertain for the last 
wish of the exalted hero is the only power which is able to 
cause New Granada to make this sacrifice." November 22nd 
the vessel which bore the remains of great Bolivar, weighed 
anchor escorted by war vessels of Great Britain, France, Hol- 
land, and Denmark which took gallant part in that first act 
of apotheosis of the deliverer of half a continent. 

Administration of Thomas C. Mosquera, 1845 to 1849. 

Sr. Mosquera's administration was perhaps the most lib- 
eral and progressive the country has had, for scarcely a month 
passed by during the same in which not a reform was initiated. 
The forests of the Magdalena were awakened by the whistles 
of the steamers. The isthmus of Panama trembled under the 
blows of the hammers which burst the rocks to make a pas- 
sage for the railroad. The army, reduced to the smallest num- 
ber possible, exchanged the arms of war for the tools of peace, 
making roads which industry needed. The disorder of the 
systems of money, weights, and measures had to make way to 
the decimal system. The military school prospered and but 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 543 



of its halls the first engineers the nation ever had came forth. 
The students pursued their studies in all branches of practical 
knowledge, there not being a single object of general interest 
to which they did not direct their attention and study. At the 
close of his administration in 1849 President Mosquera issued 
the decree hi general pardon which permitted the political 
exiles to return to their native land. 

In 1850, during President Lopez' administration, a change 
was brought about in the disbursement of taxes. Instead of 
centralizing them in the capital, as heretofore, they were left 
in the localities where they had been collected. This move- 
ment was a departure towards federal ways which had been 
favored since the time of independence by some patriots, 
but opposed by a large majority. To all the provinces and 
municipalities it was pleasing to handle their own taxes ; for 
thus they could bring proper life into their local affairs. They 
were able to attend to their home improvements, to the devel- 
opment of their own public interests without having to depend 
on officials who were more or less distant and often thought 
more of their personal interests than of the welfare of the peo- 
ple. — The Lopez government conceded foreign vessels the 
permission of navigating the interior waters. New Granada 
claims the high honor of being the first among the nations to 
open her rivers and lakes to all civilized nations without re- 
striction. — In addition to former church regulations, laws 
were enacted in 1853 which established the absolute separation 
of church and state, which allowed civil matrimony, and which 
conceded to the town boards the cemeteries as their properties. 

In 1854, when /. M. Obando was president the second 
time, a sad revolution broke out. General Meno placed him- 
self at the head of the discontented elements, had congress dis- 
solved, the president and his cabinet imprisoned, and made 
himself dictator, casting the constitution aside and making his 
own will supreme. The revolution spread throughout the 
country, battles were fought in which blood in currents flowed, 



544 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and only after horrible struggles were the Constitutionalists 
able to recapture the capital. Meno was captured and banished 
and found an abominable death in Mexico. 

Administration of Mallarino, 1^55 to 1858. 
April 1st, 1855, M. M. Mallarino entered upon the pres- 
idential duties. To appease the hateful sentiments which had 
wrought so much evil in bygone years, and to strengthen the 
peaceful relations, he called members of the various contend- 
ing parties to fill cabinet offices. From the beginning he intro- 
duced strict economy into the public expenditures and dedi- 
cated himself with the secretary of that department to the 
rearrangement of the tax affairs and to the clearing up of all 
that pertained to the public debt. For this had, through the 
many political changes of the past years, become something 
of a mystery by which those who were initiated in it grew rich 
and ruined the nation. During two years of this administra- 
tion there was a surplus of $327,756 in the treasury which, 
however, did not cover the deficit caused by the war of 1854. 
The good effect of the reorganization of the tax affairs and 
the order and clearness infused into all the arteries of the pub- 
lic treasury, made themselves distinctly felt and continued to 
exert a wholesome influence even during the administrations 
that followed. 

In 1856 and 1857 a trial of a federal government was made 
by creating the states of Panama and Santander. For the 
following year New Granada was governed in an abnormal 
fashion ; for one section, of course by far the larger, was 
governed in a unitary way, while in the other section a federal 
regime was observed. The public peace, however, was not 
disturbed. 

2. THE GRANADIAN CONFEDERATION, 1858 to 1886. 

The federal way of government was in the following 
administration applied to the whole country, and it continued 
28 years. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 545 



Presidency of M. Espina, 1858 to 186 1. 

April 1st, 1858 Dr. Mariano Espina took charge of the 
administration. Congress formulated a new constitution, a 
constitution which changed the unitary form of government to 
the federal form and reorganized the country. The republic 
of New Granada had been composed of 15 provinces, but now 
it was divided into eight states ; to wit, Antioquia, Bolivar, 
Bogata, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Panama, and San- 
tander, and it was named Granadian Confederation. 

Two serious problems presented themselves at the very 
beginning of this administration; namely, certain claims of 
the United States of America and of Great Britain. The first 
was for a question known as El Melon and the second for the 
rights or pretensions of the Makintosh bondholders. Both 
were regulated, the one by the Herran-Cass treaty, the other 
by the agreement of 1858. Both were costly to the nation 
which once more had to lament the unjust maxim "Might 
makes right." The claim of the United States government 
was the most exacting; for it demanded indemnification for 
losses which North Americans had sustained in the town of 
Melon and of which they themselves had been the cause. The 
government laid claims to the island of Taboga, one of the 
best anchoring and watering places on the Pacific coast. The 
Granadian government indignantly rejected such a demand, 
saying that rather than yield "we shall appeal to the opinion 
of the civilized world and to the justice of the American peo- 
ple." Happily this protest was not in vain. The dignity of 
the weak may become a sting to the strong. Our American 
readers will note that we give the views of a Granadian his- 
torian. 

The congress of 1859 enacted laws which did not strike 
the fancy of many. The election law became a firebrand which 
a gust of wind might fan into a country-wide conflagration. 
While the liberals protested against this law and against the 

35 



546 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



appointment of certain state magistrates, the conservatives pro- 
tested against the government of the state of Santander where 
liberal Dr. V. Herrera held the reins. And now revolution- 
izing begins anew. Soon the war demon is loose again and 
infuriates brother against brother ; soon blood flows again in 
streams and moistens the soil of the common fatherland. We 
shall neither in this civil war follow the minor movements of 
the contending parties, nor relate the many combats and bat- 
tles ; we must, however, refer to a few of the struggles to show 
how the Granadians did fight. Early in the war the talented 
governor of Santander fell and many victims had to be 
mourned. The conservatives, however, were defeated and a 
calm set in. Alas ! it was but an apparent calm, such as is felt 
before a great storm ; for soon the storm broke loose and swept 
over the whole country, the liberals and conservatives enter- 
ing into a singular struggle. Marquez and Corena invaded 
the state of Santander and there battled and fought and then 
engaged in the great carnage of Concepcion which took place 
August 29th, a battle unique in history, for all the leaders and 
officers and common soldiers were wounded more or less and 
73 per cent of the combatants were disabled so as to fight no 
more. 

The year 1860 dawned while clouds colored with blood 
hung in New Granada's political skies. The enraged passions 
of friends and enemies and the embittered relation of the 
national government to the governments of Santander and 
Cauca made the war general. May 8th General Mosquera, 
then governor of Cauca, published a decree in which he dis- 
avowed some of the laws enacted by the last congress and in 
which he declared the state of Cauca blameless for not obey- 
ing the federal government. President Espina sent troops 
against Mosquera which should bring his state back to obedi- 
ence, while he himself marched with another force against the 
state of Santander. The latter campaign was bloody and 
short. The state forces were driven from position to posi- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 547 



tion<by the federal troops and -were totally defeated in the bat- 
tle of Oratorio August 18th where the governor, his escort, 
and entire army were captured. Having completed his task 
President Espina returned to the capital with his army and 
the prisoners. In the state of Cauca, however, the federal 
troops suffered losses, were defeated, and the enemies of the 
government began to march from the south and the west, mak- 
ing the capital their objective point. Besides these troops, 
there were forces in all the other states, who fought, winning 
and losing battles, and struggled with a heroism equal to that 
of the emancipation wars. There were veteran leaders of 
either party and young officers who strove to carry their polit- 
ical views to triumph on the field of battle. Such a gloomy 
picture, heart-rending to patriots, the country presented 
December 31st when the setting sun's gleaming rays bid fare- 
well to the parting year. 

The new year, that of 1861, ushered in while the canons 
roared in the long and bloody battle of Tunja where the gov- 
ernment's cause suffered new defeats. General Mosquera, the 
victor, being joined by other leaders, then marched on the 
capital. On this march he was confronted by a federal army 
and awful was the carnage of the ensuing battle. It was said 
by eyewitnesses that even in the great battles of the revolu- 
tion it had not been seen that two enemies had taken bodily 
hold of one another with more boldness and fury. The best 
men of the country, true patriots and statesmen, leaders of 
thought and progress, sank down into death. The advantages 
of the battle were on the side of the government forces ; how- 
ever, they did not know how to utilize them; consequently 
the enemy pressed on. 

July 18th Bogata was attacked. At one o'clock in the 
afternoon the battle's furies raged everywhere and at half 
past two the defeat of the government forces was complete 
and absolute. Almost all the civil officers as well as the mil- 
itary commanders were made prisoners, only a few being able 



548 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



to escape the disaster. General 'Mosquera, the victor, ordered 
that a number of prominent men, both military and civil, be 
shot. Though the revolution had triumphed completely the 
war continued a whole year longer. 

He became the head of the new government which re- 
called the acts of the last congress and declared the contracts 
of the vanquished government null and void. A convention 
was called and met that formulated a new constitution, a con- 
stitution which became the bulwark of liberty ; for it granted 
free speech and abolished the death penalty. With the over- 
throw of the Espina administration and the adoption of a 
new constitution the country was not reorganized, but merely 
rebaptized, this time receiving the name United States of 
Colombia. What memories this name recalls! Before the 
magic name of Colombia the passions become calm and silent 
and the rightful ambitions gather strength, strength to serve 
the republic. The maxim of the Colombians is "There is never 
a cause against the fatherland." 

3. REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA, FROM 1886 ON. 

Another political change and a more radical one was 
brought about August 4th, 1886, when the federal government 
and organization which had been in existence since 1858 were 
abolished and the unitary republican form of government was 
again accepted. Since then the country bears the name Repub- 
lic of Colombia. The senate and the house of representatives, 
constituting the national congress, exercise the legislative 
power. The president is elected by congress for a term of 
four years and is assisted by six ministers or secretaries. The 
judiciary comprises a supreme court located at Bogata, a 
superior tribunal for each department, and a number of minor 
courts. 

August 3rd, 1909, General Ramon G. Valencia was ap- 
pointed by congress to fill the president's position who had 
resigned. July 15th, 1910, Sr. Charles E. Restrepo, the pres- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 549 



ent incumbent of the highest office, 
was duly elected president by the 
congress. President Restrepo is an 
able administrator, a devoted husband 
and father, and a warm friend of the 
United States. Under his manage- 
ment the Republic of Colombia is 
prosperous and will keep pace with 
the progress noticeable on the south- 
ern continent. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 




CHAS. E. RESTREPO 
President of Colombia 



The Republic of Colombia occupies 
the northwest portion of South Amer- 
ica and covers an area of 438,436 square miles, equal to that of 
the states Louisiana, Texas, Kansas, and Arkansas combined. 
It has a population of 5,031,850, equal to 11.25 inhabitants 
per square mile. 

Three chains of mountains which traverse the country 
from north to south produce a variety of climate and products 
ranging from temporate to tropical. Coffee, cacao, sugar-cane, 
tobacco, and bananas are successfully grown ; vegetable 
ivory and rubber are products of the forests ; and Panama 
hats are manufactured, in which trade the natives have 
acquired considerable skill. A man coming aboard our steam- 
er offered Panama hats for sale at the rate of 2 to 200 pesos 
a piece. The extensive forests contain a number of valuable 
cabinet and other useful woods and medicinal plants. The 
mineral wealth of the country has been but little exploited, 
although its emerald mines furnish the world's chief supply 
of the gems. Gold is found in every state; silver, platinum, 
mercury, iron, lead, and coal abound. The Colombian output 
of platinum is only exceeded by that of Russia and the coal- 
fields are very extensive, but have been only little exploited 
on account of the difficulty of transportation. The emerald 



550 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



and the salt mines and the pearl fisheries are government 
monopolies. In general, the agricultural possibilities of coffee 
and rubber, two great staples of the country, have in 1910 
been studied with care, and the mineral resources have received 
such practical attention as must soon prove that Colombia 
has in those respects very rich treasures. 

The nine departments of the republic are subdivided into 
provinces and these into municipal districts. In the depart- 
ments, executive authority is vested in governors appointed 
by the president of the republic who also appoints the dis- 
trict and provincial executive authorities. These appoint- 
ments are in harmony with the unitary republican form of 
government and may give the president despotic power should 
adequate circumstances arise. 

Bogata, the capital of Colombia, has 121,257 inhabitants, 
Medellin, 71,004, Barranquilla 48,907, Cartagena 36,632, Bu- 
caramanga 19,755. In 1909 the railway was completed that 
connects Bogata with the Magdalena river at Girardot. This 
is the successful culmination of a prolonged effort to over- 
come the isolation of the capital which had been reached up 
to that time only by a difficult passage on mule back over the 
mountains. It brings Bogata several days nearer the rest of 
the world than heretofore. Nevertheless it is still difficult 
to reach the capital from the Caribbean Sea; for Girardot lies 
some 600 miles up the Magdalena river which is still the only 
available outlet from Bogata to the Atlantic coast, is impassa- 
ble at several points on account of rapids, and has a bar at its 
mouth which impedes navigation. At Barranquilla, the sea- 
port, the journey is commenced by rail to port Savanilla, a dis- 
tance of 15 miles. From here a long journey is made on a 
river boat to La Dorada where again a train has to be boarded 
which takes the passengers to Puerto Beltran. Here a second 
river trip is commenced and continued to Girardot, whence the 
final stage of the journey is made by rail to Bogata. The 
total time consumed is about seven days. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 551 



The foreign trade of Colombia for the year 1911 amount- 
ed to $40,484,762.92. The imports were $18,108,863.36 and 
the exports $22,375,899.56. As the imports of 1910 were 
$17,385,039.67 and the exports $17,625,152.74 there was an 
increase for the year 1911 over the preceding year of $723,- 
823.69 in imports and of $4,750,746.82 in exports or a total 
increase of $5,474,670.51. 

The imports for the year 1911, by countries of origin, 
and the exports to those countries were as follows : 



COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 


United Kingdom 


. $5,838,789 


69 


$4,535,137.81 




5,404,975 


96 


12,248,995.38 


Germany 


3,242,634 


90 


1,910,353.75 




1,718,747 


80 


769,189.48 




397,733 


47 


119,654.55 




3i,790 


68 


42,777-25 




. 1,474,190 


86 


2,688,591 • 34 


Total 


$18,108,836 


36 


$22,375,89906 



The principal exports may be grouped under the follow- 
ing classes : 



ARTICLES 


QUANTITIES 


VALUES 






37,900 


$9,475,448.89 






109,786 


2,172,000.00 


Rubber 




577 


900,886.90 






10,900 


739,419.00 






3,9H 


332,935.00 






7,683 


2,454,834.83 






2,891 


1,296,797.54 






2,554 


345,896.00 


Cattle hides 




36,167 


1,779,770.21 






93,784 


1,088,821.00 



552 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The value of Colombia as a producer of cacao, rubber, 

and bananas is well established, while cotton growing has been 
the subject of favorable experiments. However, the cultiva- 
tion of bananas, wheat, and maize is regarded as most desir- 
able at the present time, as from them returns are received 
the quickest. The republic with its tropical and temporate 
climates should be able to vie with any country in the nature 
of its products. — In general, the agricultural possibilities of 
coffee and rubber, two great staples of the country, have in 
1910 been studied with care, and the mineral resources have 
received such practical attention as must soon prove that 
Colombia has in those respects very rich treasures. — More 
railways, of which the country has but 620 miles in different 
sections in operation, are much needed for the opening up of 
new and fertile regions in the agricultural and the mineral 
districts. It should be remarked also that considerable iron 
and steel manufactures were imported, principally from the 
United States to meet the demand of the increasing industrial 
activity. For the purpose of aiding national enterprises, mod- 
ifications have been made in the customs tariff on articles for 
railway construction, for mills, agriculture etc., all of which 
have been placed on the free list. Also a reduction of duties 
has been affected on articles of common consumption. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 553 




HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF QUITO, ECUADOR 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



555 



REPUBLIG OF EGUADOR. 

1830 to 1911. 

In the great revolutionary movements of Simon Bolivar 
and Sucre Ecuador became a part of the Colombian Confed- 
eration. This union Ecuador dissolved in the year 1830 when 
a constituent assembly met in Riobamba August 14th of that 
year and formulated a constitution by virtue of which that 
section of the confederation became a separate republic. Gen- 
eral Florez was elected its first president and was succeeded 
in 1835 by the able statesman, Sr. Vicente Rocafuerte, under 
whose administration the country enjoyed peace and prosper- 
ity. In the year 1897 a constitution was adopted which made 
Ecuador a centralized or unitary republic and which is still 
in vogue. The national congress consists of the senate and 
chamber of deputies; senators are elected for a term of four 
years and deputies for a term of two years. The president is 
elected for four years by direct vote and cannot be re-elected 
until after the lapse of two terms. In addition to a cabinet 
of five ministers appointed by the president, there is a coun- 
cil of state presided over by the vice-president and made up of 
the members of the cabinet, the attorney-general, the chief 
justice of the court of accounts, the rector of the central uni- 
versity, two senators, two deputies, and two other citizens, 
the six last mentioned councilors being elected by congress. 
The supreme court located at Quito is the highest tribunal and 
consists of five justices who are elected by congress for six 
years. Also the superior courts holding sessions in the larger 
cities are all elected by congress for six years. The court of 
accounts is empowered to audit and investigate all public 
accounts and expenditures and its members, like those of the 
supreme and the superior courts, are likewise elected by con- 
gress for a term of six years. 



556 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




GENERAL LEONIDAS PLAZA 
President of Ecuador 



General Eloy Alfaro was elected 
president for a term of four years, to 
begin January 1st, 1907. The pres- 
ent incumbent of the presidency, Gen- 
eral Leonidas Plaza, entered upon his 
duties January, 1911. 

As our narrative of Ecuador's his- 
tory is brief we will give a somewhat 
complete description of the country. 
The republic of Ecuador is so called 
on account of its location beneath the 
equator. Towards the east the coun- 
try is drained by the Amazon river 
which receives all the rivers that flow 
down the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, while the 
region west of them is drained chiefly by the Mira, the Esmer- 
alda, and the Guayaquil. The last mentioned river is more val- 
uable for navigation than any other stream on the whole west 
coast of the southern continent. Ecuador is traversed, nearly in 
a line of a meridian, by mountain ranges, alternating between 
union and separation which inclose, at great elevations, pla- 
teaus or table-lands. Among these last the most important 
are those of Cuenca, Hambato, and Quito, their respective 
heights above sea level being 8640, 8860, and 9543 feet. On 
these lofty plateaus the snow-capped Andes rise among which 
the peaks of the Chimborazo, 20,498 feet, and of the Cotopaxi, 
19,113 feet, are the highest in Ecuador. In consequence of 
these physical features the country is subject to volcanoes of 
which there are sixteen and to earthquakes which occur fre- 
quently. On account of altitude there is a variety of climate, 
soil, and products. In the lowlands it is intensely hot and 
there cacao, sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee, cotton, bananas, and 
other tropical fruits are grown. The table-lands, called para- 
mos, are by their moderate and uniform temperature rendered 
most delightful, like paradise, and produce the cereals of tern- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 557 



perate climates, especially wheat, also potatoes, abundantly. 
The higher regions are marked by hyperborean cold and are 
not adapted to agriculture. The rainfall is different in differ- 
ent localities. In the basin of the Guayaquil there is regularly 
a wet season. From this basin northwestward almost perpet- 
ual drought prevails, while towards the east the upper tribu- 
taries of the Amazon are said to be fed by almost perpetual 
rains. 

The extensive forests contain numerous species of useful 
trees, such as the phytelephas maorocarpa which yields the 
commercial product known as vegetable ivory, and the carlu- 
dovica palmata furnishing the fibre from which Panama hats 
are made. Other valuable trees are the chinchona from 
whose bark quinine is obtained, the mangrove used for tan- 
ning purposes, and the bomba ceiba, or silk cotton tree, which 
yields the valuable commercial product known as kapok. — 
Gold, silver, iron, copper, coal, and other minerals exist in the 
republic ; the mines, however, have been worked with but 
little success. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

The republic of Ecuador has an area of 116,000 square 
miles, equal to the combined areas of the states Missouri and 
Arkansas, and a population of 1,500,000, equal to 13 per square 
mile. It is divided politically into 16 provinces and one ter- 
ritory. The Galapagos islands, about 730 miles off the coast, 
constitute the one territory, have an area of 2400 square miles, 
and a population of a few more than 500. 

The provinces are divided into cantons and parishes. The 
administration of the provinces is in the hands of governors 
who are appointed by the president who also appoints the 
executive officers of the cantons. The councilors of the par- 
ishes are elected by the people and have the duty to prescribe 
the budget and to propose improvements. 



558 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The principal cities with their populations are Quito, the 
capital, 80,000, Guayaquil 75,000, Cuenca 40,000, Riobamba 
18,000. 

The latest official publication of the foreign trade of Ecua- 
dor is for the year 1910, from which it appears that the im- 
ports were $8,007,629 and the exports $13,638,308, amounting 
to the total of $21,645,937. The imports for the preceding 
year were $9,090,262, the exports were $12,091,096, totaling 
the sum of $21,181,358. Comparing the two years 1909 and 
1910, there is a decrease in imports of $1,082,633 and an in- 
crease in exports of $1,547,212, or a net increase in the foreign 
trade of $464,579. 

The imports, by countries of origin, for the year 1910 
and the exports to those countries were as follows : 



COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 




$2,455,599 


$1,136,827 




2,249,674 


4,082,II2 




1,570,903 


2,243,607 


France ..... y y . y y y y :. . 


525,534 


4,785,613 




336,454 


150,176 




325,351 




Spain ....>- v y y y v y y v y . . . 


271,390 


399,656 


Salvador . . . v y y y y y ...... 


77,127 






59,763 


71,954 


Chile ........ v . . 


53,836 


383,071 




81,908 


385,352 




$8,007,629 


$13,638,308 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 559 



According to the report of Consul General Dietrich, the 
exports by articles for 1911 were: 

Cocoa beans $8,012,296 Fruits $ 71,900 

Panama hats 1,404,501 Gold ore 225,750 

Coffee . 1,119,558 Gold 37,321 

Ivory nuts 868,694 Money 645 

Rubber 682,557 Miscellaneous 924,515 

Hides 209,996 

Total $13,558,033 

Cacao is the staple agricultural product and the largest 
export article of Ecuador. This country's supply is equal to 
that of Brazil or of the East Indias, and France usually buys 
the larger half of it. In 1910 Ecuador's 35,928 tons of cacao 
went to the following countries : 



COUNTRIES 


AMOUNTS ' 


VALUE 






Sucres 




19,658 tons 


8,986,855 




8,162 " 


3,461,878 




3,945 " 


1,724,887 




1,605 " 


776,960 




1,703 " 


793,239 




488 " 


225,107 




367 " 


179,040 


Total 


35,928 tons 


16,057,966 



A sucre has the value of 48.6 cents United States gold ; 
10 sucres equal £1 sterling. After cacao, the most valuable 
export of the republic is the wild product known as taque, or 
vegetable ivory, from which buttons are made. Ecuador fur- 
nishes the world the largest supply of this article, the quantity 
exported annually being about 48,000,000 pounds. Alligator 
skins amounted to 48,134 kilos in 1910, which all went to the 
United States. 



560 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



The total extent of railway lines in . operation is a little 
over 316 miles. The Guayaquil and Quito Railway Company 
completed the construction of its road which runs from Gua- 
yaquil to the capital, on June 25th, 1908, and since that date 
trains, both passenger and freight, have been running regu- 
larly between the two cities. The regular passenger trains 
run during the day only and make the trip of 297 miles in two 
days, while formerly by mule and on foot it ordinarily required 
12 to 15 days to go over the same route. Since the comple- 
tion of this line the people of Quito and of the whole republic 
are looking forward to a new era of progress and well they 
may; for the government has since then taken various addi- 
tional steps forward. Besides the railroads mentioned the gov- 
ernment has begun work on the Ambato to Curaray Railway. 
The entire line has been surveyed, a large part of the roadway 
has been staked off ready for grading, and masonry work was 
begun in March, 1913. The government plans to finish the 
work of construction in about two and a half years ; but if it 
were decided to have the road built under contract, it would 
probably be completed in about half that time, as a number of 
contractors could be employed in the different phases of work. 
The road will pass through the province of Tungurahua, will 
traverse a rich agricultural, stock-raising, mining, and forestal 
section of Ecuador, and will open up a vast territory in the 
eastern part of the country exceedingly rich in natural wealth. 

Another step forward is the installation of an electric 
power plant and tramway line in Quito. The installation will 
be completed and a section of the line be placed in operation on 
or before April 1st, 1914. — And, indeed, a wireless telegraph 
installation has been erected at Guayaquil, port of Ecuador, 
which is capable of sending messages as far as Paita, Peru, 
whence it may be continued to Lima and Arequipa and to Val- 
paraiso, Chile. 

In 1909 there was a successful national exposition held in 
Quito to celebrate the centennial anniversary of the move- 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



561 



ment for independence. This was really an international ex- 
hibit, for it attracted the attention of the larger nations of the 
world. After the close of the exposition arrangements were 
made with the government of Ecuador to keep the United 
States pavilion open in order to give the public an opportun- 
ity to see new articles which had recently arrived from this 
country and to the end that manufacturers, merchants and the 
consuming public might the more thoroughly acquaint them- 
selves with the manufactured products of the United States, 



36 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



563 



REPUBLIG OF VENEZUELA. 

1831 to 1912. 

In the year 1831, soon after Bolivar's death, Venezuela 
separated from the Colombian Confederation and elected Gen- 
eral Joseph A. Paez, the celebrated hero of the revolution, her 
first president. Subsequent endeavors to induce Venezuela to 
return to the confederation, failed completely. Under suc- 
ceeding administrations attempts to change the then existing 
form of government were made and on February 20th, 1859, 
Venezuela declared herself, by a vote of a majority of her 
citizens, in favor of a federal republic. The federal form of 
government was then introduced and the country has ever 
since been managed by federal administrations. When John 
Falcom who was elected president in 1865 was in office, he was 
confronted by the unionists who strove to overthrow the fed- 
eral government. They were successful in 1868 when the 
president fled from the capital ; but two years later the fed- 
erals regained the supremacy. In 1891 the congress of Ven- 
ezuela took some steps forward on the way of progress, by 
enacting laws of far reaching importance, such as, abolish- 
ment of the last traces of slavery and of the death penalty, 
guaranty of liberty of worship and nullification of the pres- 
ident's right of veto, and by giving the people other important 
civil and political rights which had previously been withheld. 
When President Cipriano Castro withdrew from the admin- 
istration and the country November, 1908, General John V. 
Gomez, the present incumbent of the presidency, assumed 
the official duties, was elected provisional president by con- 
gress August, 1909, and constitutional president April 24th, 
1910, for a term of four years. 

The constitution, at present in vogue, was adopted by the 
national congress August 5th, 1909; it leaves the country the 



564 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 




JOHN V. GOMEZ 
Preeident of "Venezuela 



federal, representative republican form 
bf government and names the repub- 
lic The United States of Venezuela, 
making it one of the three United 
States of South America. The var- 
ious states are entirely autonomous in 
their internal government, with cer- 
tain limited powers only vested in the 
federal government. The legislative 
authority is vested in a congress of two 
houses — the senate and the chamber of 
deputies. The executive power is vest- 
ed in a president, a cabinet of ministers 
who act in conjunction with the presi- 
dent, and a council of government that co-operates with him in 
certain cases provided for in the constitution. The president is 
elected by the national congress for four years. — The judiciary 
comprises the high federal court, the court of cassation, sev- 
eral courts of appeal, and a number of minor courts. — Cara- 
cas is the seat of the federal authority, but when unforeseen 
circumstances should arise the executive power may fix its 
residence at any other place within the federal district. The 
republic is composed of 22 states, 2 territories, and a federal 
district. The states are equal as political entities, each hav- 
ing a legislative assembly whose members are elected in con- 
formity with the respective state constitutions. The execu- 
tive power of each state consists of a governor, a secretary- 
general, and a council of government. The states are divided 
into districts and the latter into municipalities, each district 
having a municipal council and each municipality a communal 
board. 

Geographically Venezuela may be divided into three dis- 
tinct zones; namely, the extensive plains and river valleys, 
known as the Llanos and affording excellent pasturage for 
numerous herds of cattle ; the mountain sections, formed" by 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 565 



three distinct systems; and the dry and healthful table-lands, 
or plateaus. The coastline, from east to west, i. e. from the 
delta of the river Orinoco to the boundary line of Colombia, 
is 1584 miles. The east section of the coastline, 150 miles 
long and consisting mostly of the Orinoco delta, is washed 
by the Atlantic Ocean and is very low. With slight excep- 
tions Venezuela is abundantly watered. Her great river is 
the Orinoco which drains by far the greater section of the 
country by means of its long tributaries. Numerous smaller 
streams flow north into the Caribbean Sea and into Lake 
Maracaibo, the largest lake of the country. The Andes enter 
Venezuela from the west and divide into two branches. How- 
ever, south and southeast of the Orinoco are the most moun- 
tainous districts, — a vast, confused, and mostly unexplored 
region. The country comprises vast table-lands known under 
the names Llanos, Paramos, Mesas, and Punos. Extensive 
low, marshy tracts along the coasts and the lake and river 
banks are abundantly fertile during the dry season; indeed, 
for the most part the soil of Venezuela is fertile. In the 
mountainous districts of the southeast there are great tracts 
adapted for the raising of grains. Of this region the lands 
not more than 2000 feet above sea-level are called tierras 
calidas, or hot lands ; those between 2000 and 7000 feet above 
sea-level are called tierras templadas, or temperate lands ; and 
those above 7000 feet are called tierras frias, or cold lands, in 
which the average temperature is 49 degrees F. and which are 
mostly uninhabited. The warmest tracts are the palm-lands ; 
and the sago-palm and cocoa-palm, and others grow here to 
colossal size and yield most valuable products. Among the 
forest trees are mahogany, satinwood, rosewood, black and 
white ebony, and caoutchouc; and there are forests of the 
chinchona or Peruvian bark tree. The coca and coffee trees, 
sugar-cane, indigo and cotton plants are cultivated. Vege- 
tables in great variety are raised and tobacco is a profitable 
crop. The slopes of the mountains are heavily wooded and 



566 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



contain timber in abundance and many useful medicinal 
plants; viz., divi divi, the pods of which furnish an excellent 
material for tanning; Maclura tinctorea, producing fustic 
and yielding an excellent yellow dye ; plants from which indi- 
go and rubber are gained ; and numerous cabinet and useful 
woods. — Among wild animals the puma, ounce, and wild-cat 
abound; the jaguar is becoming rare. The alligator, croco- 
dile, boa-constrictor, and rattlesnake are found. Of domestic 
animals great herds of wild horses roam over the llanos ; and 
mules, asses, sheep, goats, and pigs are reared. Agriculture 
is the great pursuit, though only about one-tenth of the area 
is under cultivation. Manufactures are few ; commerce is 
important and will be more so when more roads are con- 
structed and mules will be replaced by other means of convey- 
ance. The principal articles of export are cofTee, cotton, 
cacao, sugar, indigo, tobacco, salt, hides, live stock, tallow, 
horns, sarsaparilla, dyewoods, and timber. The imports are 
manufactured goods, provisions, and wine. — The mines pro- 
duce precious and useful metals — gold, silver, copper, and 
lead. The various asphalt lakes yield the qualities of asphal- 
tum, while along the coast pearls are found at different points. 

STATISTICAL REPORT. 

According to data furnished by the director-general of 
the Venezuelan bureau of statistics, the United States of Ven- 
ezuela have an area of 393,976 square miles, which is twice 
as large as all the New England States and New York, Penn- 
sylvania, and West Virginia combined. Over this vast area 
a population of only 2,713,703 is distributed, averaging 6.8 
persons per square mile. The principal cities and their pop- 
ulations are: Caracas, the capital, 75,000, Maracaibo 55,000, 
Valencia 45,000 ; Margarita Island, the seat of pearl fisheries, 
has a population of 25,000. 

The foreign commerce of Venezuela, compiled from offi- 
cial reports for the year 1911, amounted to $41,079,273.20; of 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 567 



which $18,394,889.53 was imports and $22,684,383.67 was ex- 
ports. The gain for the year over 1910 in imports was 
$6,007,337.65 and in exports $4,735,812.64, or a total gain of 
$10,743,150.29. 

The imports into Venezuela for the year 1911, by coun- 
tries of origin, and the exports to those countries were as fol- 
lows : 



COUNTRIES 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS 




$5,253,681.77 


$1,265,377.22 




5> 2I 9,55o- 2 ° 


/, Oo3,^Ul . lo 




3,195,945.22 


4,269,210.96 




1,857,564-11 


6,120,445-11 




1,322,770.19 


363,365.74 




666,350.54 


I,308,334.37 


Italy 


597,339.42 


142,504.92 




128,522.77 


781,834.86 




126,663.53 


59,129.43 




I4,274.i5 


700,229.73 




4,261.35 , 


95,409-55 




2,560.46 


283,629.72 




759.64 


178,014.42 


Total 


$18,394,889.53 


$22,684,383.67 



The principal articles of export for the years 1910 and 
1911 were as follows: 



ARTICLES 


1910 


191 1 




Bolivars 


Bolivars 




41,713,856 


59,616,625 


Cacao 


17,521,938 


18,659,956 


Balata 


11,367,369 


12,689,473 




4,831,503 


6,049,127 


Gold 


1,604,553 


3,337,886 




1,970,561 


2,654,492 


Rubber 


4,414,103 


2,667,910 


Berron plumes (aigrettes) 


697,378 


1,605,423 



568 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



ARTICLES 


I9IO 


19H 




948,8/6 


1,386,184 




785,000 


1,310,400 


Beef cattle 


1,004,353 


1,081,046 




549,ou 


835,424 




766,049 


744,640 




33,187 


710,742 




393,915 


540,3i6 




279,308 


296,901 




68,100 


290,465 




225,949 


271,030 


T) _1 „ 


409,130 


- 242,500 




59,851 


219,461 




65,550 


219,226 




1 77?577 


179,866 



The exploitation of native products forms the basis for 
Venezuela's industrial life. The area under coffee is esti- 
mated at about 200,000 acres, the number of coffee estates 
being over 33,000. Cacao growers operate 5000 estates and 
there are many sugar plantations. Recent figures indicate an 
increase in the exports of Venezuela's coffee, cacao, and other 
products. 

The live stock of the country is estimated at over 6,000,- 
000 head of cattle, 1,600,000 goats, and 1,600,000 pigs. 

In the principal cities, like Caracas, Valencia, Maracaibo, 
and Puerto Cabello, considerable manufacturing for local use 
is done. In Valencia a fine plant for the manufacture of cot- 
ton cloth has been established. There are several electric 
plants furnishing power to nearby cities. In Caracas the 
newly installed tramway system is run by electricity. 

The total length of railway in operation is about 542 
miles. The number of lines, according to latest information, 
was twelve with an invested capital of over $40,000,000. The 
waterways of Venezuela form important means of communi- 
cation and transportation; for there are no fewer than 70 
navigable rivers in the country, with a total navigable length 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 569 



of over 6000 miles, of which the mighty Orinoco, the third 
largest river of the continent, with its tributaries, furnishes 
nearly 4000 miles. The more important of the other naviga- 
ble rivers are the Apure, the Portuguesa, the Yaracuy, and the 
Escalante, all of which are navigable for steam launches and 
flat-bottomed boats only. Ocean going vessels enter Lake 
Maracaibo, which covers an area of 8000 square miles and is 
navigable in its entirety. This lake is connected with the 
gulf of Venezuela and the Caribbean Sea by means of a strait 
34 miles in length and from 5 to 9 miles wide. With her 
favorable geographical position on the Caribbean Sea and the 
Atlantic Ocean and with a coastline of more than 1700 miles, 
Venezuela possesses not fewer than 50 bays and 32 ports. 
The most important of the latter is La Guira, the commercial 
center of the republic and port of the capital, as also the port 
of call for all North American and European liners. Ciudad 
Bolivar, 373 miles inland on the Orinoco, is the most impor- 
tant inland port and commercial town. 

According to the geographer Codazzi, Venezuela contains 
154,250 square kilometers of cultivable lands, 333,954 square 
kilometers of lands suitable for stock raising, and 58,954 kilo- 
meters of lands that can not be utilized for agricultural and 
stock-raising purposes. The government of Venezuela de- 
sires that foreign capital flow into the republic and suggests 
that capitalists interested in the investments of funds in the 
country study the Venezuelan laws, make a careful examina- 
tion of conditions, and secure exact data concerning the invest- 
ment of funds in railway and other enterprises. 



570 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



RESUME OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. 



COUNTRIES 


Areas in sq. m. 


Population 


Inhabitants 
per sq. m. 


Brazil 


2 218 1 ^0 


20 ^ 1 ^ 000 


6 4 




•Mjyjy/y 


u,yoy,u^j 


U. 


Peru 


679,600 




6.6 


Colombia. 


/n8 zn6 


4,320,000 


10. 


Chile 


2QI ^OO 


? ^00 000 


12. 




oyj,y/ u 


2 7T 1 THI 

A o,/ u o 


6.8 




708,195 


2,267,935 


3-2 




Il6,000 


1,500,000 


13. 




72,210 


1,042,686 


14.3 




171,815 


800,000 


4-6 


c English . . . 


76,000 


287,981 


3-8 


Guianas \ Dutch .... 


46,000 


62,469 


1-4 


v French . . . 


31,000 


25,600 


.8 


Total ...... 


7,382,841 


48,524,397 


6.57 



South American Exports and Imports of 1911 




THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



571 



APPENDIX. 

Forces at Work in the Development of South America. 

South America has been called "The Continent of Oppor- 
tunity." Its soil is rich, its climate beautiful; its mines are 
inexhaustible, its forests almost impenetrable. Its people, 
however, lack development of intellect, of conscience, in relig- 
ion. The forces that will bring South America up to a higher 
standard, that will bring it to the front, are threefold — mater- 
ial, intellectual, religious. 

I. Material forces. We learned that agriculture and cat- 
tle raising are progressing in the most countries, that railway 
lines are being extended in all directions, that rivers and coast 
lines are navigated. Into almost all the countries the most 
modern inventions; such as, railroads, telegraphs, telephones, 
electric plants etc. have been introduced. — Increase in. the 
commercial pursuit shows the trend of a country, of a conti- 
nent. Brazil's foreign commerce has grown in the last decade 
from $235,000,000 to $583,034,171. Argentina's foreign 
trade has increased in the same years from $193,000,000 to 
$670,762,977, an astonishing growth for a nation of less than 
seven million people. Argentina can undeniably give lodg- 
ment to 100,000,000 inhabitants and can feed them cheaply. 
Chile's foreign jtrade has increased in the last decade from 
$100,000,000 to $248,00,000; she is extending her railway 
system, developing her resources, and preparing herself to 
occupy a very forward position amongst the South American 
republics. The foreign trade of Peru has grown from 
$25,000,000 to $62,000,000 in the last decade and the republic 
is experiencing a new life that augurs well for the future. 
Similar facts might be mentioned in regard to the commercial 



572 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



progress of Colombia, Venezuela, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Ecua- 
dor; only Paraguay is increasing its commerce slowly. — 
Industries are still in their infancy and the industrial plants 
are few. Raw materials and the means to develop the natural 
resources are at hand ; it, however, requires foreign capital 
and ingenuity to bring them to the use of men. — The immi- 
gration statistics show that about 70 per cent as large a num- 
ber of foreigners come to South America as pass through all 
our Atlantic ports. 

The Panama canal will be an effective means in the 
material development of the southern continent, at least of its 
west coast. With the opening of the canal a new and brighter 
day will dawn for the western countries. The isthmian water- 
way will bring Valparaiso, Chile's main port, 4000 miles and 
Guayaquil, Ecuador's principal harbor, 8600 miles nearer to 
New York. A Chilean steamship company whose steamers 
now maintain the passenger traffic between Valparaiso and 
Panama, has resolved to send their vessels via the canal 
directly to New York. It will be a straight route from south 
to north. The people of the United States are not merely 
looking southward to the canal, they are looking beyond it 
and there they see the coasts of Colombia, of Ecuador, of 
Peru, of Chile. The farther they look the brighter their view 
is becoming; for far-away Chile affords the brightest pros- 
pects. We anticipate a lively intercourse between our east 
coast and South America's promising west coast through the 
isthmian waterway. 

2. Intellectual forces. Public instruction and higher 
education are the second forces at work in the development of 
South America. Illiteracy is still surprisingly great. The 
poor who constitute by far the larger part of the populations, 
in some countries seventy-five or even eighty per cent, are 
ignorant, superstitious, immoral, very degraded. Nuns and 
monks were the only teachers in the bygone past. They 
taught the children who came to the convents mainly reading, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 573 



so as to read the biographies of saints and to learn prayers to 
the virgin by heart. Even this meager teaching was by no 
means general or universal; for but a small per cent of a 
country's youth went to the convents for instruction. It is 
evident that those who attended did not obtain a preparation 
for life, since besides reading they did not learn any of the 
rudimentary branches of instruction. Girls of 20 years of 
age who had been with the nuns in a city of 45,000 people, 
came to my school for the purpose of learning to write and 
to cipher because the nuns had not taught that ; and they were 
obliged to begin with the first lines in writing and the first 
figures in arithmetic. 

The idea of public education took hold of the liberal gov- 
ernments of various republics in the latter half of the last 
century. The idea of a public school system is decidedly 
republican and liberal in South America. The liberal govern- 
ments gained the conviction that a republic is prosperous and 
strong only when the masses of the people are educated and 
thus undertook movements towards universal education in 
government schools. They took this branch, as also some 
other branches, of public welfare, out of the hands of the 
priesthood by opening schools independent of priests and the 
church. Such changes were not brought about without bit- 
ter fights of the liberal legislatures with the clergy and of the 
liberal parties with the clerical parties. These fights were 
tenacious and continuous, and they were glorious ; for they 
terminated with the defeat of the power that had kept the 
masses in ignorance, darkness, and degradation. The estab- 
lishment of public schools throughout all the South American 
countries is a mighty force to bring the common people up- 
ward and forward, to somewhat higher planes of thinking and 
living. The children who have obtained better instruction 
will not live the lazy, filthy, low lives of their ancestors. 

When we now ask the question : What is being done in 
the line of public instruction? we wish to allude to the three 



574 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



most awakened countries only, concluding with a statistic of 
schools of all the countries. 

In Chile primary education is absolutely free, i. e. not 
compulsory. The liberal government is gradually extending 
the school system over the country. At the close of 1911 there 
were 2896 elementary schools with 4729 teachers and an 
attendance of 375,274 pupils ; this attendance is about 10 per 
cent of the population. The government even provides school 
books and utensils for those pupils whose parents are too poor 
to buy them. Fifteen normal schools are dispersed through- 
out the republic in which young men and women are educated 
to teach in the common schools. Secondary instruction is 
imparted in the National Institute at Santiago and in the var- 
ious lyceums of which there is one in every provincial capital 
and in every city of some importance. In 1907 there were 39 
of these lyceums for men and 30 for women. The National 
University of Santiago which is attended by about 3000 stu- 
dents provides the highest education. Besides the institutions 
mentioned Chile has commercial, industrial, agricultural, and 
military schools. 

In Chile there are published some 400 papers and periodi- 
cals — daily, weekly, bi-weekly, and monthly — some of which, 
especially the large newspapers of Santiago and Valparaiso, 
are thoroughly modern and up-to-date, having an excellent 
telegraphic news service. 

In the Argentine Republic public instruction is, as com- 
monly, divided into three classes — primary, secondary, and 
higher. Primary education is exempt from fees and is com- 
pulsory for children from 6 to 14 years of age. In 1909 there 
were 4744 public government schools for primary instruction 
in the republic with 18,061 teachers and an enrollment of 
668,534 pupils. Besides these schools which the federal gov- 
ernment maintains, the provinces also support numerous 
schools. The total attendance in 1909 was 10 per cent of the 
population, and a school census, taken in that year, showed 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



575 



that the number of children of school age in the republic was 
1,200,212 who were about 20 per cent of the population. 
From these figures it follows that only one-half of the children 
of school age actually attended school. The schools in the 
capital and provinces of Argentina are under the supervision 
of a national council of education which occupies a handsome 
building in the city of Buenos Aires. Argentina's symmetri- 
cally developed system of education was introduced by D. F. 
Sarmiento who was president of the republic from 1868 to 
1874. Previous to his presidency he had been the Argentine 
minister in the United States and he doubtless brought the 
plan of our public school system to his native country. — The 
South American public schools, however, are government 
schools and are maintained by the governments, while those of 
our* country belong to the districts in which they are located. 

Secondary education in Argentina is not compulsory, but 
practically free, only a small fee being charged for registration 
etc. Sixteen lyceums and thirty-five normal schools situated 
in all the larger cities of the republic, provide for secondary 
or preparatory education. 

The national Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires 
and the provincial universities at La Plata, Santa Fe, and 
Parana impart higher education, having faculties for law and 
medicine, for exact, physical, natural, and social sciences, for 
literature and philosophy. The rector of the Buenos Aires 
university reported that in the scholastic year 1908-9 the insti- 
tution had been frequented by 4364 students who were thus 
classified: Faculty of law and social sciences 1051, faculty of 
philosophy and letters 210, faculty of medicine 2501, faculty 
of exact, physical, natural sciences 602. Plans have been pre- 
pared to increase the number of university buildings. Besides 
the schools and institutions of learning mentioned the Argen- 
tine government maintains a large number of other educational 
plants that serve various public purposes. 

The press is well represented in the republic. While 



576 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



there are newspapers printed in all the cities and even in the 
smaller towns, in the city of Buenos Aires alone are 482 pub- 
lications of all kinds, 66 of which are published daily, 16 thrice 
a week, 14 twice a week, 191 are weeklies, and 64 monthlies, 
others issue irregularly. The press of Buenos Aires is the 
most polyglot of any city in the world ; for there are 422 pub- 
lications in the language of the country, i. e. in Spanish, 22 in 
Italian, 8 in German, 8 in English, 8 in French, and one in 
Arabic. The Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Basque, Russian, 
Dutch, and other colonies, all have their respective organs. 

Notwithstanding these mighty educational forces 50 per 
cent of the Argentine population is still illiterate. 

In Brazil the interest in public education awoke with Dom 
Pedro's I. declaration of independence in 1822. The desire 
for the development of intellectual life was manifested 
throughout the country and a decree was issued in 1823, 
authorizing any citizen to establish a private school without a 
previous special license or authority. Congress is empowered 
by the provisions of the constitution to promote in the coun- 
try the development of literature, arts, and sciences; all in- 
struction given in public institutions, however, shall be secular. 
Primary education is compulsory in some states, and even in 
the states which are farthest removed from the capital and 
least populous, efforts have been made to enforce the com- 
pulsory system which is hoped to achieve good results. The 
instruction of the Brazilian youth is highly necessary ; for the 
attendance of Brazil's public schools was in late years only 
two per cent of the population and 84 per cent of the people 
were still illiterate. According to reports compiled by the sta- 
tistical bureau of Rio de Janeiro the primary schools of the 
republic numbered 11,147 with a total enrolment of 565,722 
pupils, and the secondary schools numbered 327 with a matric- 
ulation of 30,258 pupils. These figures comprised both pub- 
lic and private schools. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



577 



Brazil has no real university. The national institutions 
devoted to higher or university education are the two law- 
schools of Pernambuco and Sao Paulo, the medical, the fine 
arts, and the polytechnic schools of Rio de Janeiro, the medi- 
cal school of Bahia, and the mining school of Ouro Preto in 
the state of Minas Geraes. A presidential decree, dated Sep- 
tember 23rd, 1909, authorized the establishment of free indus- 
trial schools in the capitals of the states. 

The use of telephones has become very general in Brazil. 
There are at present 39 telephone systems each of which has 
from 2200 to 3500 subscribers. Of these systems 15 are Ger- 
man, 9 are Kellogg, 3 are Bell, 4 are American, and the others 
are Swedish and French. The capitals of the companies who 
operate these lines vary from $800 to $1,190,000. The gov- 
ernment has granted concessions for the laying of a cable from 
Recife to the Madeira Island and of cables on the Brazilian 
coast. A German company was preparing to lay a cable from 
Recife to Monravia in Liberia. 



Primary Schools of the South American Republics. 



REPUBLICS 


SCHOOLS 


TEACHERS 


PUPILS 


Brazil 


n,i47 
4,774 
2,896 
2,987 
2,339 
1,200 

791 
1,543 

344 




565,922 

668,534 
375,274 
235,000 
162,298 
70,000 
74,896 
48,718 
40,605 
62,000 


Argentina . 

Chile 


l8,06l 
4,729 


Peru 


3,105 










Bolivia 


756 







3. Religious forces. The third of the forces which are 
at work in the development of South America is Protestant 
37 



578 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



mission work. Though we bring this last it is not the least. 
Mission work is the main force, the vital power ; it is the very 
essence of all true development. The spreading of the Word 
of God and the preaching of Christ's Gospel are the great 
need of the people of the southern continent. They are con- 
tributing mightily to popular enlightenment, to true liberty of 
consciences and sentiments, and to the progressiveness that is 
needed everywhere. 

Though it is neither within the scope of this work nor its 
object to prove the necessity of Protestant mission work in 
South America, yet a few general thoughts may be in place. 
The main reason why the southern republics stay so far be- 
hind the United States of America in all-sided development, 
lies in the fact that they have been under the sway and influ- 
ence of the Roman Catholic Church of the Spanish type from 
the beginning. This church trained the masses in superstition, 
but did not lead them on in pure faith ; it kept them in deterio- 
ration of consciences and in immorality, but did not bring 
them up in righteousness ; it kept the people in ignorance and 
moral depravity, but did net build elevated characters, did not 
develop noble manhood and womanhood. The most priests 
being immoral themselves, immorality and vices are looked 
upon as belonging to public life, as necessary inherent elements 
of home and society life, and are not condemned by a public 
conscience or even censured. The deplorable lot of the ignor- 
ant masses is not simply material poverty, but poverty of 
intellect, of heart, of consciences also ; their manner of living 
is consequently very low. Since the dominating church did 
do nothing to elevate the degraded classes, the liberal parties 
of the various countries took up a fight with the clerical par- 
ties for the purpose of doing their unfortunate countrymen 
some good. They enacted laws and introduced measures by 
which the lowly might be lifted out of their degradation and 
their living conditions might be improved. In the political and 
legislative battles that were fought, many liberals were turned 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 



579 



out of the Roman Church, they being her opponents, and fell 
into infidelity. As the established church can neither lift the 
poor benighted classes out of the miry clay nor regain the lib- 
erals who are her enemies, Protestant mission work has a call 
and a necessity. Liberal thought and sentiment has in various 
countries advanced to such a degree that it is tying the hands 
of the priests and the bishops and that it has become the open 
door for the missionaries and the Bible. 

What is being done to develop South America religiously ? 
After a number of forerunners who labored heroically, after 
some preliminary operations that have been successful, there 
are to be mentioned four church organizations which are at 
present at work in the evangelization of the South American 
people. 

1. The Methodist Episcopal Church began work in Rio 
de Janeiro and Buenos Aires in 1835 through the activity of 
Rev. F. E. Pitts who preached to English speaking people in 
both cities. In the following year one missionary was sent to 
each of those capitals and congregations were organized. The 
Spanish work in the Argentine Republic was begun in 1867. 
Rev. William Taylor, afterwards Bishop of Africa, inaugu- 
rated mission work on the west coast in 1878. The work in 
Chile pre-eminently spread fast and is exerting a strong influ- 
ence. The Methodist Episcopal Church has at present mis- 
sions in Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, 
Uruguay, Paraguay, at Para in Brazil and up the Amazon riv- 
er, and altogether has the most extensive work of any of the 
American denominations in South America. In 1876 the 
work in Brazil was taken up by the Methodist Episcopal 
Church South, except at Para and the stations along the Ama- 
zon. 

2. The American and Foreign Christian Union supported 
by various Protestants in the United States of America, began 
evangelical work on the west coast 1850. Its missions were 



580 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



generally, if not entirely, among English speaking people and 
in the ports where such persons were found in the greatest 
numbers. Rev. David Trumbull, an American, started from 
the United States in 1845 under the appointment of the For- 
eign Evangelical Society and for many years rendered most 
efficient service in Valparaiso, Chile, under the above Union. 
The Presbyterian Church of the United States began mission 
work in Colombia and in its capital, Bogata, in 1856. The 
mission board of that church opened work also in various 
ports of Brazil in the early sixties. In 1873 the American 
and Foreign Christian Union turned its Chilean work over to 
the Presbyterian Board whose activity has been greatly pros- 
perous in Chile and in southern Brazil. 

3. Several societies which are essentially Anglican are 
also doing missionary work on that continent. The South 
American Missionary Society is at work in Buenos Aires 
where preaching services and schools are maintained. The 
Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States began work 
in southern Brazil and in Rio de Janeiro. The Episcopal mis- 
sion work is a diocese which is superintended by a resident 
bishop. 

4. The Southern Baptist Convention of the United States 
began work in Brazil in 1882. The missions of the society 
fringe the Brazilian coast for more than 3000 miles and ex- 
tend up the Amazon 1000 miles to Manaos. Stations have 
been founded in every state, save one. 

Besides these four well established churches, a number of 
auxiliary forces are doing effective and heroic work on the 
southern continent and contribute strongly to the religious 
development of the people. Mission schools are established 
in all the capitals and commercial centers of the republics. 
They are exerting a far reaching influence as both space and 
time are concerned ; for they educate and train the coming 
generation. To bring the youth under Protestant influence, 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 581 



to train young men and women in institutions where the Bible 
is at home, will be of telling effect in the future. As example 
may serve Santiago College which Dr. Ira H. La Fetra and 
his efficient wife opened for girls in Chile's capital in 1880. 
The institution which in the course of 28 years they developed 
to a university standard, was in the latter years attended by 
340 pupils who came from the best homes of the capital, came 
from many other cities and towns of the republic, and even 
from Peru and Guayaquil. Santiago College is known as the 
best girls' school on the west coast. Its graduates are teachers 
in other schools and colleges and some become wives of men 
in prominent positions. There are also Methodist mission 
schools in Concepcion and Iquique, in Lima and Buenos Aires, 
and in many other cities of the continent. The Presbyterian 
Instituto Ingles in Santiago is a boys' school and is also 
doing efficient work. The institute has an opportunity of 
doing a work for South America which may be of scarcely less 
importance than the work which Robert College on the Bos- 
phorus is doing for the Balkan states. 

Another auxiliary agency of mission work is the Bible 
Societies. In distributing the Bible members of many denom- 
inations unite. It has been estimated that through such agen- 
cies two million copies of the sacred Scriptures have been cir- 
culated in Spanish and Portuguese South America. By the 
distribution of the Scriptures these societies often prepare the 
way for the regular mission work of the churches. Frequently 
the colporteur is a plain man, but he travels far and wide on 
horseback or otherwise, going over a considerable part of the 
continent and touching points where the professional mission- 
ary preacher would not be tolerated. There he sells or gives 
away his Bibles and in address or conversation plants the seed 
of truth from which after a while the missionary may gather 
the harvest. Not unfrequently the colporteur takes his life in 
his hands and becomes a hero quite as much as the soldier on 
the field of battle. Some were killed, others imprisoned for 



582 



HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA 



years for the Word's sake. One, being imprisoned, sold all 
his Bibles to his fellow prisoners. 

As last auxiliary force of the direct gospel work we men- 
tion the Young Men's Christian Association. The Associa- 
tion is established in Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, 
Pernambuco, Montevideo, and a secretary will now already 
have entered Santiago, Chile. The total membership was 3056 
already some years ago, composed of native South Americans, 
Anglo Saxons, and other Europeans, the former predominat- 
ing. The chief opportunities of the Association lie in the 
government student centers, the great commercial and political 
centers, among the younger merchant and professional classes, 
both native and foreign, and among the liberal elements who 
have broken away from the established church. The associa- 
tion will find a needy field of labor in the South American 
cities, as vice is very general and considered an inherent ele- 
ment of daily life. I know of young men who went down 
into degradation and some into death soon after they had 
arrived from Europe. — The Young Women's Christian Asso- 
ciation commenced work in Buenos Aires in 1906 where there 
is a membership of 500. Other centers are now under con- 
sideration. The large number of young women away from 
home, the unparalleled need of preventive work, and the ex- 
pense of living, make a field for work among young women 
unexcelled in opportunity. 

There are in all South America 800 missionaries, men and 
women, from Great Britain, the continent of Europe, Canada, 
and the United States. In Canada'and the United States there 
is on an average one Protestant minister for every 514 persons. 
In South America each missionary has a constituency of about 
50,000, indicating a need in proportion of population 100 times 
as great as in the Protestant countries of North America. 

These are some of the events in the missionary occupation 
of South America, and it will be seen that they are of compar- 
atively recent dates. 



THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 583 



There, however, is hope and cheer in the conditions of the 
South American republics. The three forces which are at 
work — the material, the intellectual,. and the religious forces, — 
have set new ideals before the people, have planted new aspira- 
tions in many breasts. The various republics are leaving 
anarchy, petty squabblings, and misrule behind, and are ad- 
vancing toward stable, responsible governments, based more 
and more upon the will of the people ; true republicanism is 
growing stronger with every decade. Thus the South Ameri- 
can people are fronting in the right direction, their faces are 
turned towards the rising of the sun. They will lead better 
lives, will rise to higher planes of morality and efficiency as 
they learn to know Him who is the Way, the Truth, and the 
Life. 



